Spelling and Grammar
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Wikipedia-Article "Spelling"
Proper spelling is the writing of a word or words with all necessary letters and diacritics present in an accepted, conventional order. It is one of the elements of orthography and a prescriptive element of language. As a means of transcribing the sounds of language into alphabetic letters, spelling, however officially sanctioned, often offers but a rough and inconsistant approximation.
Whereas uniformity in the spelling of words is one of the features of a standard language in modern times, and official languages usually prescribe standard spelling, Minority languages and regional languages often lack this trait. Furthermore, it is a relatively recent development in various major languages in national contexts, linked to the compiling of dictionaries, the founding of national academies, and other institutions of language maintenance, including compulsory mass education.
Learning proper spelling by rote is a traditional element of elementary education. In the US, the ubiquity of the phonics method of teaching reading, which emphasizes the importance of "sounding out" spelling in learning to read, also puts a premium on the prescriptive learning of spelling. For these reasons, divergence from standard spelling is often perceived as an index of stupidity, illiteracy, or lower class standing. The intelligence of Dan Quayle, for instance, was repeatedly disparaged for correcting a student's spelling of potato as potatoe at an elementary school spelling bee in Trenton, New Jersey on June 15, 1992. In fact, "potatoe" is a variant historical spelling now in disuse.
Divergent spelling is also popular advertising technique used to attract attention or to render a trademark "suggestive" rather than "merely descriptive": qwik, donut, or tonite, for example.
Spelling evolves, often from a principle of alphabetic thrift rather than phonetic rectitude: catalogue becomes catalog. Despite this, in countries such as the US and UK without official spelling policies, many vestigial and foreign spelling conventions work simultaneously. In countries where there is a national language maintenance policy, such as the Netherlands and Germany, spelling reforms were driven to make spelling a better index of pronunciation.
Since traditional language teaching methods emphasized written language over spoken language, a second-language speaker can have a better spelling ability than a native in spite of having a worse command of the language.
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) aims to provide a medium of alphabetic characters to transcribe all sounds in all languages.
See also
Wikipedia-Article "Grammar"
- This article is about grammar from a linguistic perspective. For English grammar rules, see English grammar or Disputed English grammar
Grammar is the study of rules governing the use of language. The set of rules governing a particular language is also called the grammar of the language; thus, each language can be said to have its own distinct grammar. Grammar is part of the general study of language called linguistics.
The subfields of modern grammar are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Traditional grammars include only morphology and syntax.
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Types of grammar
- A prescriptive grammar presents authoritative norms for a particular language, and tends to deprecate non-standard constructions. Traditional grammars are typically prescriptive. Prescriptive grammars are usually based on the prestige dialects of a speech community, and often specifically condemn certain constructions which are common only among lower socioeconomic groups, such as the use of "ain't" and double negatives in English. Though prescriptive grammars remain common in pedagogy and foreign language teaching, they have fallen out of favor in modern academic linguistics, as they describe only a subset of actual language usage.
- A descriptive grammar attempts to describe actual usage, avoiding prescriptive judgements. Descriptive grammars are bound to a particular speech community, and attempt to provide rules for any utterance considered grammatically correct within that community. For example, in many dialects of English, the use of double negatives is very common, though ungrammatical from the point of view of a prescriptive English grammar. A descriptive grammar of a speech community where "I didn't do nothing" is acceptable will treat that sentence as grammatical, and provide rules that account for it. A descriptive grammar of formal English would rather provide rules for "I didn't do anything."
- Traditional grammar is the collection of ideas about grammar that Western societies have received from Greek and Roman sources. Prescriptive grammar is always formulated in terms of the descriptive concepts inherited from traditional grammar. Modern descriptive grammar aims to correct the errors of traditional grammar, and generalize them, so as to avoid shoehorning all languages to the model of Latin. Nearly all materials used in teaching language, however, are still based on traditional grammar.
- A formal grammar is a precisely defined grammar, typically used for computer programming languages.
- A generative grammar is a formal grammar that can in some sense "generate" the well-formed expressions of a natural language. An entire branch of linguistic theory is based on generative grammars. Generative grammars were popularized by Noam Chomsky.
Development of grammars
Grammars evolve through usage and human population separations. With the advent of written representations, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also. Formal grammars are codifications of usage that are developed by observation. As the rules become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise. This often creates a gulf between contemporary usage and that which is accepted as correct. Linguists normally consider that prescriptive grammars do not have any justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes. However, prescriptions are considered in sociolinguistics as part of the explanation for why some people say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the other depending on social context.
The formal study of grammar is an important part of education from a young age through advanced learning, though the rules taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the sense most linguists use the term, as they are often prescriptive rather than descriptive.
Planned languages are more common in the modern day. Many have been designed to aid human communication (such as Esperanto or the intercultural, highly logic-compatible artificial language Lojban) or created as part of a work of fiction (such as the Klingon language and Elvish languages). Each of these artificial languages has its own grammar.
It is a myth that analytic languages have simpler grammar than synthetic languages. Analytic languages use syntax to convey information that is encoded via inflection in synthetic languages. In other words, word order is not significant and morphology is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language. Chinese and Afrikaans, for example, are highly analytic and meaning is therefore very context dependent. (Both do have some inflections, and had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more "purely" analytic over time.) Latin, which is highly synthetic, uses affixes and inflections to convey the same information that Chinese does with syntax. Because Latin words are quite (though not completely) self-contained, an intelligible Latin sentence can be made from elements placed in largely arbitrary order. Latin has a complex affixation and a simple syntax, while Chinese has the opposite.
In computer science, the syntax of each programming language is defined by a formal grammar. In theoretical computer science and mathematics, formal grammars define formal languages. The Chomsky hierarchy defines several important classes of formal grammars.
See also
Grammatical devices
Grammatical terms
- Adjective
- Adjunct
- Adverb
- Appositive
- Article
- Aspect
- Auxiliary verb
- Case
- Clause
- Closed class word
- Comparative
- Complement
- Compound noun and adjective
- Conjugation
- Dangling modifier
- Declension
- Determiner
- Dual (form for two)
- Expletive
- Function word
- Gender
- Infinitive
- Measure word (classifier)
- Modal particle
- Movement paradox
- Modifier
- Mood
- Noun
- Number
- Object
- Open class word
- Parasitic gap
- Part of speech
- Particle
- Person
- Phrase
- Phrasal verb
- Plural
- Predicate (also verb phrase)
- Preposition
- Personal pronoun
- Pronoun
- Restrictiveness
- Sandhi
- Singular
- Subject
- Superlative
- Tense
- Uninflected word
- Verb
- Voice
Related topics
- Category:Grammar frameworks
- Category:Grammars of specific languages
- Ambiguous grammar
- Analytic language vs. Synthetic language
- Government and binding
- Linguistic typology
- Syntax
- Systemic functional grammar
References
Bede Rundle, Grammar in Philosophy, Oxford 1979