Fire and Security

For other uses, see Fire (disambiguation).

It has been suggested that flame be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

A large bonfire.

Fire a form of combustion, is the most spectacular chemical phenomenon. Linguistically, the word fire refers to the combination of the brilliant glow and large amount of heat released during a rapid, self-sustaining burning of combustible fuel. Technically, fire is not a state of matter; it is an exothermic oxidation process by which heat and light energy are given out. Fire starts when a fuel with adequate oxygen supply is subjected to enough heat, and it is sustained by the further release of heat energy in the process, as well as a continuous supply of oxygen and combustible fuel. A match or lighter is usually used to start a fire (which can then propagate to other combustibles) because matches and lighters are designed with materials of low burning point. Fire is extinguished when one or more of heat, oxygen, and fuel is removed.

Flames can conduct electricity, as a small portion of any fire is ionized. This has been demonstrated in the laboratory and also in large wildfires that occur in the vicinity of power lines.

Controlling fire

A log burning in a fireplace.

Controlling fire for the purposes of providing heat and light was one of humankind's first great achievements. The ability of fire to generate heat and light made possible migration to colder climates and enabled people to cook food — a decisive step in the perennial fight against disease. Smoke signals were an early use of fire for communication, and fire soon enabled advancements in metallurgy such as smelting and forging. Archaeology indicates that ancestors of modern humans such as Homo erectus seem to have been using controlled fire as early as some 790,000 years ago. The Cradle of Humankind site has evidence for controlled fire 1 million years ago.

By the time of the Neolithic introduction of grain based agriculture, people the world over used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically controlled "cool fires," as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires" that damage the soil. Such hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. All too often this is a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and fall. They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable.

A lit gas burner on a stove.

Today, the applications of fire are numerous. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Owners of internal combustion vehicles use fire every time they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity. However, fire is also used more directly; many nomadic peoples still use fire for cooking. It is also used for smoking, and as a weapon.

In fact, the use of fire by militaries has a long history up to the present day. Homer detailed its use by Greek commandoes who hid in a wooden horse to burn Troy during the Trojan war. Later the Byzantine fleet (late Romans) used Greek Fire to attack ships and men. In the Vietnam War, the Americans dropped a modern version, Napalm, from the air. More recently many villages were burned during the Rwandan Genocide. Aerial bombing of cities, including firebombing (using incendiary bombs) was also frequently used during World War II. See also Category:Incendiary weapons. Molotov cocktails are in common use as well.

Fire and religion

Fires and burning have often been used in religious rites and symbolism, as the smoke of the fire disperses into the heavens. Fire is one of the four classical elements, as well as one of the five Chinese elements. In Hinduism fire is one of five sacred elements of which all living creatures are comprised and is considered an eternal witness essential to sacred religious ceremonies. In Christianity, fire is a symbol of the Holy Ghost and is often used in descriptions of Hell. Fire is a symbol of Ahura Mazda, or God, of the Zoroastrian religion. A Zoroastrian church is known as a Fire Temple. Fire is also an important part of Calcination, the fire operation in the art of alchemy. In Greek mythology, Prometheus is the Titan chiefly honored for stealing fire from the gods in the stalk of a fennel plant and giving it to mortals for their use. In Judaism fire also has great significance, candles are lit to usher in holidays and to separate Shabbat from the rest of the week, as well as to remember the dead; another important fire symbol is the Eternal Flame, which was a fire kept in the First and Second Temple was never supposed to go out.

Fire as a power source

Fire has supplied much of the energy which has helped humans since ancient times, from the wood fires which served many prehistoric purposes to the oil, gas and coal power stations of today which supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity (nearly 80%¹). Mexico is typical with thermal energy providing 76% of all energy².

The burning of wood is often the first association to the word "fire". It is common in a developing country for wood to be the primary energy source as well. For instance, in Africa, 65% of the energy used comes from the burning of biomass³. What is less obvious is that wood burning power stations are less environmentally destructive than the fired oil power station in two major respects. E.ON UK is soon to build a 44 megawatt wood fired power station in Britain for these reasons, as reported in the Guardian newspaper in October 2005⁴: first, wood is a renewable resource, especially if trees are grown in a modern, sustainable way. Second, the carbon dioxide emissions are negligible because no more carbon dioxide can be produced by burning than would be produced by the natural rotting of wood. Thus, over a 100-year timescale, the effect is carbon-neutral⁵. It is also claimed that this power station will be more efficient than coal: accelerants can be used to spread fire faster or have it burn hotter.

The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines are linked to an electrical generator.

Uncontrolled fire

A forest fire.

The self-sustaining nature of fire makes it extremely dangerous if uncontrolled. Fire can consume structures and forests and can severely injure or kill living things through burns or smoke inhalation. Structure fires can be started by cooking accidents, electrical faults, fuel leaks, children playing with lighters and/or matches, and accidents involving candles and cigarettes. Fire can propagate rapidly to other structures, especially where proper building standards are not met. Purposefully starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a criminal offense in most jurisdictions. The destructive capacity of fire has led most municipalities to offer fire fighting services to quickly extinguish fires. Trained firefighters use fire trucks, fire hydrants, and an array of other equipment to combat the spread of fires. Municipal buildings such as schools and government buildings often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Outside of urban settings, wildfires can consume large areas of forest and brush and often damage nearby settlements.

There are many different classification systems used for uncontrolled fires; in Europe and Australasia six groups are used:

• Class A: Fires that involve flammable solids such as wood, cloth, rubber, paper, and some types of plastics.
• Class B: Fires that involve flammable liquids or liquefiable solids such as petrol/gasoline, oil, paint, some waxes & plastics, but not cooking fats or oils.
• Class C: Fires that involve flammable gases, such as natural gas, hydrogen, propane, butane.
• Class D: Fires that involve combustible metals, such as sodium, magnesium, and potassium.
• Shock Risk (formerly known as Class E): Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire, with a resultant electrical shock risk if a conductive agent is used to control the fire.
• Class F: Fires involving cooking fats and oils. The high temperature of the oils when on fire far exceeds that of other flammable liquids making normal extinguishing agents ineffective.

A house on fire.

In the U.S., fires are generally classified into four groups: A, B, C, and D.

• Class A: Fires that involve wood, cloth, rubber, paper, and some types of plastics.
• Class B: Fires that involve gasoline, oil, paint, natural and propane gases, and flammable liquids, gases, and greases.
• Class C: Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire.
• Class D: Fires that involve combustible metals, such as sodium, magnesium, and potassium.

A fifth group, Class K, is sometimes added. It refers to fires involving large amounts of grease or oil. Although, by definition, Class K is a subclass of Class B, the special characteristics of these types of fires are considered important enough to recognize.

Science of fire

A blacksmith's fire, used primarily for forging iron.

A flame is a self-sustaining oxidizing chemical reaction producing energy and ionized gas (plasma). It consists of reacting gases emitting visible and infrared light, the frequency spectrum of which is dependent on the chemical composition of the burning elements and intermediate reaction products. In many cases such as burning organic matter like wood or incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles (soot) produce the familiar red-orange 'fire' color light. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single wavelength radiations from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame as well, producing toxic hydrogen chloride (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames (amongst many more) are fluorine and hydrogen or hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide.

The glow of a flame is somewhat complex, due to a mix of black-body radiation emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles (though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies), and from photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and chemical makeup for the emission spectra.

See also

A car on fire. Often cars are set alight and abandoned in order for their owners to avoid paying for their removal.

• Backdraft
• Bonfire
• Bushfire
• Campfire
• Explosion - another form of combustion/oxidation
• Fire eater
• Fire hydrant
• Fire point
• Fire-retardant material
• Firestorm
• Firewall
• Flash point
• Flashover
• Flint and steel fire
• Glossary of firefighting equipment
• Glossary of firefighting terms
• Glossary of wildland fire terms
• Immolation
• List of historic fires
• Reckless burning
• Rust - another form of combustion/oxidation
• Tinder
• Trench effect
• Wildfire, also known as a forest fire

References

• "Share of Total Primary Energy Supply", 2002; International Energy Agency
• "Mexico Grid Summary", 2000; Global Energy Network Institute; thermal energy defined as oil, gas and coal
• "Energy in Africa - Chapter 3", US Energy information administration
• "How Can Burning Wood Help Reduce Global Warming", The Guardian
• The Straight Dope: What exactly is fire?. Adams, C.(2002).Retrieved Dec. 19, 2004.
• Dave Reay, "Climate Change Begins at Home"

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Fire

• What exactly is fire? (from The Straight Dope)
• Early human fire mastery revealed BBC article on archeological discoveries
• Parts of a candle flame
• Flames in microgravity
• Spiral flames in microgravity
• moebuildingcontrol.co.uk - UK Guidance on fire safety codes and fire engineering

This page covers security in the sense of protection from hostile action. For the financial instrument of the same name see security (finance)

Security is being free from danger. The term can be used with reference to crime, accidents of all kinds, etc. Security is a vast topic including security of countries against terrorist attack, security of computers against hackers, home security against burglars and other intruders, financial security against economic collapse and many other related situations.

Defining the word security

The word "security" in general usage is synonymous with "safety," but as a technical term "security" means that something not only is secure but that it has been secured. For example, In telecommunication, the term security has the following meanings:

• A condition that results from the establishment and maintenance of protective measures that ensure a state of inviolability from hostile acts or influences.
• With respect to classified matter, the condition that prevents unauthorized persons from having access to official information that is safeguarded in the interests of national security.
• Measures taken by a military unit, an activity or installation to protect itself against all acts designed to, or which may, impair its effectiveness.

Sources: from Federal Standard 1037C and adapted from the Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms

Another proposed alternative definition:

• When our expectations are met, we can say that quality has been met. When our expectations are met once and again, despite of errors, catastrophes and attacks which in principle could prevent our expectations to be met, we can say that security has been met. Security is not falsifiable (Popper). We can prove that there has been a security failure, but we can't prove that there hasn't. Security measures improve the likeliness of expectations to be met, and therefore improve security. With respect to classified matter there is an expectation of the classified matter to remain secret for as long as we wish. A control access system is the security measure that helps this expectation to be accomplished.

The key problem in defining security is that it is an inherently fuzzy concept. If someone offers you a cigarette, should your bodyguard stop him? This is a method of making your death more likely, but, since you want to smoke the cigarette you would consider it bad to be deprived. If, on the other hand, the cigarette was poisoned, this would be a clear breach of security. Most security measures also involve compromise. If you want to be safe from poisoned cigarettes, you must also accept that you will lose access to free cigarettes from strangers. If you want to be even safer, you must stop smoking.

Security has to be compared and contrasted with other related concepts: Safety, continuity, reliability. The key difference between security and reliability is that security must take into account the actions of active malicious agents attempting to cause destruction.

A simple and clear definition of effective security could be:

• a secure system is a system which does exactly what we want it to do and nothing that we don't want it to do even when someone else tries to make it behave differently.

Perceived security compared to real security

It is very often true that people's perception of security is not directly related to the actual security. For example, a fear of flying is much more common than a fear of driving; however, driving is generally a much more dangerous form of transport.

Another side of this is a phenomenon called security theatre where ineffective security measures such as screening of airline passengers based on static databases are introduced with little real increase in security or even, according to the critics of one such measure - CAPPS - with an actual decrease in real security.

Categorising security

There is an immense literature on the analysis and categorisation of security. Part of the reason for this is that, in most security systems, it is the "weakest link in the chain" which is the most important. The situation is asymmetric since defender must cover all points of attack whilst the attacker must only identify one weak point and concentrate on that.

Types of security

• physical security
• information security
• computing security
• financial security
• human security

Security concepts

Certain concepts recur throughout different fields of security.

• risk - a risk is a possible event which could cause a loss
• threat - a threat is a method of triggering a risk event
• countermeasure - a countermeasure is a way to stop a threat from triggering a risk event
• defense in depth - never rely on one single security measure alone
• assurance - assurance is the level of guarantee that a security system will behave as expected

Security standards

• TCSEC (Orange Book)
• Common Criteria
• ISO 17799:2000 Code of practice for information security management
• The newer ISO 17799:2005 Code of practice for information security management

This section is a stub. You can help by adding to it.

See also

• Surveillance
• insecurity
• information security
  • CISSP
• classified information
• national security
  • police
  • security police
  • Public Security Bureau
• computer security
  • hacking
  • cracking
  • security breaches
• communications security
  • phreaking
• search
• ilities