Wine [2]
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Wikipedia-Article "Wine [2]"
- This article is about the beverage. See WINE (software) for an article about the software of the same name.
Wine is an alcoholic beverage made by fermenting grapes or grape juice. Wine-like beverages can also be made from other fruits or from flowers, grains, and even honey; in such cases, however, a qualifier is often legally required (e.g., "elderberry wine" ). The English word wine and its equivalents in other languages are protected by law in many jurisdictions.
This article is about grape wine. For non-grape wines, see country wine for fruit and flower wine, barley wine (which is similar to beer), sake for rice wine, baijiu for the Chinese spirits sometimes transliterated as "wine," and mead for honey wine.
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History
The word wine comes from the the Old English win, which derives from the Proto-Germanic *winam which was an early borrowing from the Latin vinum (related to Greek οἶνος), which can mean either the "wine" or the "vine".
The earliest known evidence of a fermented wine-like drink is from the Chinese village of Jiahu dated from 6000 to 7000 BC [1]. The wine, found in 16 buried jars, contained millet, rice, beeswax (from honey) and either hawthorn fruit or wild grape. A 3,000 year old bronze jar has also been unearthed, still containing a similar liquid wine.
Ancient pottery jars discovered at Hajji Firuz Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of present-day Iran, near the city of Urmia [2], indicate that grape wine was produced as far back as 5,500 BC. It is believed that the name of the Shiraz grape originates from the Persian town of the same name. This discovery is particularly significant, as Hajji Firuz Tepe was not a grape-growing area, the main crops being grains and the preferred drink of the time was beer. As ancient Babylon was located on the Silk Road from China to the Mediterranean, all indications suggest that wine was probably used as a commodity for trade.
In ancient Egypt, wine played an important part in ceremonial life. Although wild grapes were never grown there, a thriving royal winemaking industry had been established in the Nile Delta. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt and Canaan during the Early Bronze Age, commencing from at least the Third Dynasty (2650 – 2575 BC), the beginning of the Old Kingdom period (2650 – 2152 BC). Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced at the deltaic vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five wines, all probably produced in the Delta, constitute a canonical set of provisions, or fixed "menu," for the afterlife. Christianity included wine in its rites where it takes the place of the blood of Jesus in the liturgies of Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican Christians. The advent of wine in Europe was the work of the Greeks who spread the art of grape-growing and winemaking in Ancient Greece and Roman times.
Wine-producing regions
Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty north and between thirty and forty five degrees south of the Equator. The world's most southerly vineyards are in the South Island of New Zealand near the 45th parallel.
The 13 largest export nations(2005 dates) – Italy, France, Spain, Australia, Chile, the United States of America, Germany, South Africa, Portugal, Moldova, Hungary, Croatia and Argentina. In the United States, California accounts for the largest share of wine producers, including Napa Valley, Sonoma Valley, Paso Robles, Santa Ynez and Temecula wineries. The vineyards of Algeria used to produce many fine wines, especially during and immediately after the era of French colonization, but the resurgence of Islam among the populace since the 1970s has greatly reduced this industry.
The leaders in export volume by market share in 2003 were:
- France, 22%
- Italy, 20%
- Spain, 16%
- Australia, 8%
- Chile, 6%
- United States, 5%
- Portugal 4%
- Germany 4%..
See also: List of wine-producing regions
Wine grape varieties
Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species, Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, or Zinfandel, for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; indeed, some of the world's most valued and expensive wines from the Bordeaux, Rioja or Tuscany regions, are a blend of several grape varieties of the same vintage.
Wine can also be made from Vitis labrusca, from other species or from the hybrid of two species. Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis rupestris, Vitis rotundifolia and Vitis riparia are native North American grapes, usually used for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, but sometimes used for wine, eg. Concord wine. Although only rarely used and generally prohibited by law in traditional wine regions, hybrids are planted in substantial numbers in cool-climate viticultural areas.
Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of grafting a North American vine's root to the stock of a vinifera varietal. This is common practice because North American grape species are immune to phylloxera. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the World except for Chile, which has yet to be exposed to the bug.
The variety of the land, the local yeast cultures and the climate and conditions under which grapes are grown, (called "terroir") combined to offer a great variety among wine products, which are further increased by the fermentation process itself and by improvements attained with proper aging, sometimes for several decades or more. However, variety is not in itself a sought-after quality for large producers of table wine or more affordable wines, where consistency is more important for large and modern factory wines, and mass-market wine brands. Their producers will try to hide any hint of often-unremarkable "terroirs", or climatically under-performing harvest years, by:
- blending harvests of various years and vineyards;
- pasteurizing the grape juice in order to kill indigenous yeasts (to be replaced with "choice" cultivated yeasts); and
- using flavor additives.
See also: List of grape varieties
Classification of wine
By vinification methods
Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include classifications such as sparkling, still, fortified, rosé, and blush. The colour of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice are known as teinturiers. Red wine is made from red (or black) grapes, but its red colour is bestowed by the skin being left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation. A white wine made from a very dark grape may appear pink or 'blush'. Rosé wines are a compromise between reds and whites: the skin of red grapes is left in for a short time during fermentation, or a small amount of red wine is blended with a white wine.
Sparkling wines, such as champagne, are those with carbon dioxide, either from fermentation or added later. They vary from just a slight bubbliness to the classic Champagne. To have this effect, the wine is fermented twice, once in an open container to allow the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, and a second time in a sealed container, where the gas is caught and remains in the wine. In France, wines that gain their carbonation from the traditional method of bottle fermentation are called Méthode Traditionnelle. Other international denominations of sparkling wine include Sekt or Schaumwein (Germany), Cava (Spain), Spumante or Prosecco (Italy). In most countries except the United States, champagne is legally defined as sparkling wine originating from a region in France.
Fortified wines are often sweeter, always more alcoholic wines that have had their fermentation process stopped by the addition of a spirit, such as brandy. They include:
Brandy is a distilled wine. Grappa is a dry colorless brandy, distilled from fermented grape pomace, the pulpy residue of grapes, stems and seeds that were pressed for the winemaking process.
By taste
Wines may be also classified by their primary impression on the drinker's palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. Different grape varieties are associated with the aromas and tastes of different compounds. Wines may be described as 'dry' (meaning they are without sugar), off-dry, fruity, or sweet, for example. The sweetness of wines can be measured in brix, at harvest, but is in actuality determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation. Dry wine, for example, has only a tiny amount of residual sugar. Specific flavors may also be sensed, at least by an experienced taster, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules, such as esters, that a fully vinted wine contains.
White grapes
- Sauvignon Blanc: Gooseberry, asparagus.
- Sémillon: Honey, orange, lime.
- Chardonnay: Butter, melon, apple, pineapple, vanilla (if oaked, i.e. vinified in new oak aging barrels)
- Chenin Blanc: Wet wood, beeswax, honey, apple, almond.
- Riesling: Citrus fruits, petrol, honey.
- Gewürztraminer: Rose petals, lychee, spice.
- Viognier: Peach, pear, nutmeg, apricot.
- Marsanne: Almond, honeysuckle, marzipan.
- Meursault: Full-bodied, dry, oak.
Red grapes
- Gamay: Banana, bubble-gum, red fruits.
- Pinot Noir: Raspberry, cherry, violets, "farmyard" (with age).
- Zinfandel: Black cherry, mixed spices, mint.
- Shiraz (Syrah): Tobacco, pepper, blackberry.
- Grenache: Smoky, pepper, raspberry.
- Tempranillo: Vanilla, strawberry, tobacco.
- Sangiovese: Herbs, black cherry, leathery, earthy.
- Nebbiolo: Leather, stewed prunes, chocolate, liquorice.
- Merlot: Black cherry, plums, pepper, coffee.
- Cabernet Franc: Tobacco, green bell pepper, raspberry, new-mown grass.
- Cabernet Sauvignon: Blackcurrants, chocolate, mint, tobacco.
- Mourvèdre: Thyme, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, violet, blackberry.
- Petite Sirah (Durif): Earthy, black pepper, dark fruits.
- Pinotage : Banana, bramble fruits.
By vintage
Wines may be classified by the year in which the grapes are harvested. "Vintage wines" are made from grapes of a single year's harvest, and are accordingly dated. These wines often improve in flavor as they age, and wine enthusiasts will occasionally save bottles of a favorite vintage wine for future consumption.
For most types of wine, the best-quality grapes and the most care in wine-making are employed on vintage wines. They are therefore more expensive than non-vintage wines. Whilst vintage wines are generally made in a single batch so that each and every bottle will have a similar taste, climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality.
Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines are only made in better-than-average years. Conversely, wines such as White Zinfandel, which don't age well, are made to be drunk immediately and may not labeled with a vintage year. There are exceptions though. French Champagne is often non-vintage, but may not be "cheap", and can sometimes profit from aging 2-3 years, some Prestige Cuvées even much longer.
Collectible wines
At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most expensive of all foodstuffs, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Red wines, at least partly because of their ability to form more complex subtleties, are typically the most expensive. Such wines are often at their best years, or sometimes decades, after bottling. On the other hand, they may turn into vinegar, and before opening the bottle there may be no way of knowing this. Part of the expense associated with high-end wine comes from the number of bottles which must be discarded in order to produce a drinkable wine. Restaurants will often charge between two to five times the price of what a wine merchant may ask for an exceptional vintage. This is for a reason: diners will often return wines that have gone foul and not bear the expense. For restaurateurs, serving old vintages is a risk that is compensated through elevated prices. Some high-end wines are Veblen goods (for conspicuous consumption).
Exclusive wines come from all the best winemaking regions of the world. Secondary markets for these wines have consequently developed, as well as specialised facilities for post-purchase storage for people to "invest" in wine. The most common wines purchased for investment are Bordeaux and Port. Many wine writers have decried the trend, as it has pushed up prices to the point that few people will consider drinking such valuable commodities, and consequently they are kept in bottles undrunk where they eventually deteriorate into a substance very much like red wine vinegar in taste (and desirability).
Also investment in fine wine has attracted a number of fraudsters who have played on fine wine's exclusive image, and their clients' ignorance of this sector of the wine market. Typically, the scams work by charging excessively high prices on the wine, while representing that it is a sound investment unaffected by economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing.
Some wines, produced to mark significant events in a country or region, can also become collectible because of labelling design. An example is the Mildara Rhine Riesling produced in 1973 to mark the opening of the Sydney Opera House. Instead of labels, the bottles (red, as well as white) had printing in gold on them, as seen in the illustration.
- For special types of wines, see.
Types of wines
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Red wines
Sparkling red wines
Sparkling white wines
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White wines
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Wine names
Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place of production. Generally speaking, Old World (European) wines are named for the place of production, with the grapes used often not appearing on the label. New World wines(those from everywhere except Europe) are generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their increased prominence on New World wine labels. Examples of recognized locales include:Napa Valley, Russian River Valley, Willamette Valley, Sonoma, Walla Walla, etc., Still, though, the grape variety is almost invariably present on the label. This is not the case with most European wines because tradition and legal restrictions enable any conoisseur to know exactly what variety of grape is in the bottle. Within Europe, a major exception to the no-grape rule is with German wines, for which it is not uncommon to find this information on the front label.
Regional wine names
The taste of a wine depends not only on the grape species and varietal blend, but also on the ground and climate (known as terroir) where it is cultivated. Historically, wines have been known by names reflecting their origin, and sometimes style: Bordeaux, Rioja, Mosel and Chianti are all legally defined names, reflecting the traditional wines produced in the named region. These naming conventions or "appellations" (as they are known in France) dictate not only where the grapes in a wine were grown, but also which grapes went into the wine and how they were vinified. The appellation system is strongest in the European Union, but a related system, the American Viticultural Area, restricts the use of certain regional labels in America, such as Napa Valley,