Sweeteners

A sugar substitute is a food additive which duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, but often with less food energy. In Commonwealth English, sugar substitutes are often referred to as "sweeteners" (to the exclusion of sugar).

An important class of sugar substitutes are known as high intensity sweeteners. These are compounds whose sweetness is many times that of sucrose; accordingly, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds (the "sweetness profile") is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation.

If the sucrose (or other sugar) replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a bulking agent is often also needed. This may be seen in soft drinks such as cola labeled as "diet" or "light" or "economy" which contain artificial sweeteners and often have notably different mouthfeel; or in table sugar replacements which mix maltodextrins with an intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture sensation.

In the United States, five artificially derived sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are saccharin, aspartame, sucralose, neotame and acesulfame-K. These compounds are all high intensity sweeteners. There is ongoing controversy as to whether artificial sweeteners are health risks. Some studies show that they cause disease in laboratory rats but this is only after huge doses. No scientific studies have shown health risks to humans at normal doses.

The majority of sugar substitutes approved for food use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some natural sugar substitutes are known — including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and mushrooms. (Although natural, they may be produced synthetically in bulk food production, to lower production costs.) Other natural substitutes are known but are yet to gain official approval for food use.

Another important group of non-sugar sweeteners are the polyols. These are generally less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is 'fine-tuned' with high intensity sweeteners as described above. As with all food products the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex process.

Reasons for using sugar substitutes

There are three main reasons for using a sugar substitute:

• To assist in weight loss (and metabolic health) — some people choose to limit their food energy intake by substituting high-energy sugar with other sweeteners with little or no energy. This allows them to eat the same foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight and avoid other problems associated with excessive energy intake.

However, it should be noted that changing the food energy intake from one food will not necessarily change a persons overall food energy intake, or cause a person to lose weight. No published study has shown this. One study [1] on WebMD, by the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, actually showed the opposite, where those who consumed diet soda were more likely to gain weight than those that consumed naturally sweetened soda.

• Dental hygiene — sugar substitutes are toothfriendly, as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque.

• Diabetes mellitus — people with diabetes have difficulty regulating their blood sugar levels. By limiting their sugar intake with artificial sweeteners, they can enjoy a varied diet while closely controlling their sugar intake. Also, some sugar substitutes do release energy, but are metabolized more slowly, allowing blood sugar levels to remain more stable over time.

Sugar substitute health controversies

There is ongoing controversy over the supposed health risks of artificial sweeteners such as saccharin and aspartame. Some studies suggest that they may cause diseases in laboratory animals, but this is usually after "mega-dosing" animals already predisposed to disease. No scientific study has demonstrated health risks of saccharin to humans at normal doses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration determined in 1981 that aspartame is safe to use in foods. It has also ruled that all products containing aspartame must include a warning to phenylketonurics that the sweetener contains phenylalanine (as do many foods).

Cyclamate controversy

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration banned the sale of cyclamate in 1970 after lab tests indicated that large amounts of cyclamates caused bladder cancer in rats (a disease which rats are particularly susceptible to, also caused by drinking sugar water). The findings of these studies have been challenged and some companies are petitioning to have cyclamates reapproved. Cyclamates are still used as sweeteners in many parts of the world. They are used with official approval in over 55 countries.

Saccharin controversy

There have been worries about the safety of saccharin since its introduction. United States President Theodore Roosevelt, on the safety of saccharin, said "Anyone who thinks saccharin is dangerous is an idiot".

Saccharin was the first artificial sweetener and was originally synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg and its sweet taste was discovered by accident. It had been created in an experiment with toluene derivatives. A process for the creation of saccharin from phthalic anhydride was developed in 1950 and currently saccharin is created by this process and the original process by which it was discovered. It is 300-500 times as sweet as sugar (sucrose) and is often used to improve the taste of toothpastes, dietary foods, and dietary beverages. The bitter aftertaste of saccharin is often minimized by mixing it with other sweeteners.

Fear about saccharin increased when a 1960 study showed that high levels of saccharin may cause bladder cancer in lab rats. In 1977, Canada banned saccharin due to results from animal research. The FDA in the United States considered banning saccharin in 1977, but after a moratorium was placed on the ban to study the safety of saccharin, the ban was withdrawn in 1991. Likewise, in 2000, the United States repealed a law requiring saccharin products to carry health warning labels. Most other countries also permit saccharin but restrict the levels of use.

Aspartame controversy

Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter at the G.D. Searle company (later purchased by Monsanto). He was working on an anti-ulcer drug and spilled some aspartame on his hand by accident. When he licked his finger, he noticed that it had a sweet taste. It is an odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from the two amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is about 200 times as sweet as sugar and can be used as a tabletop sweetener or in frozen desserts, gelatins, beverages, and chewing gum. It cannot be used in baking because at certain high temperatures it changes into a derivative that is tasteless. Its chemical name is N-L-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine-1-menthal ester and its chemical formula is C₁₄H₁₈N₂O₅. Though it has no bitter aftertaste like saccharin, its drawback is that it might not taste exactly like sugar because it reacts with other food flavors. When eaten, aspartame is metabolized into its original amino acids and has a relatively low food energy.

Initial safety testing suggested that aspartame caused brain tumors in rats; as a result, the additive was held up in the United States for many years in the Food and Drug Administration's approval process. In 1980, the FDA convened a Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI) consisting of independent advisors charged with examining the purported relationship between aspartame and brain cancer. The PBOI concluded that aspartame did not cause brain damage, but recommended against approving aspartame at that time, citing unanswered questions about cancer in laboratory rats. In 1981, FDA Commissioner Arthur Hull Hayes, newly appointed by President Ronald Reagan, approved aspartame as a food additive, citing data from a Japanese study that had not been available to the members of the PBOI. [2]

Since the FDA approved aspartame for consumption, some researchers have suggested that a rise in brain tumor rates in the United States may be at least partially related to the increasing availability and consumption of aspartame. [3], [4] However, more recent research has failed to find any link between aspartame and cancer or other health problems. [5], [6]

One of the many hypotheses about the causes of Gulf war syndrome is that soldiers, after drinking gallons of aspartame-containing soft drinks in the extreme heat, accumulated toxic doses of methanol, formaldehyde, diketopiperazine and formic acid from the breakdown of the sweetener into its component molecules. However, the symptoms do not greatly resemble those of classic methanol poisoning, and the body, in its normal metabolism, produces methanol in quantities comparable to or greater than would be ingested via aspartame, so this theory does not have wide support.

Sucralose controversy

Sucralose is a modified sugar compound that is about 600 times as sweet as sugar. It is produced from sucrose when three chlorine atoms replace three hydroxyl groups (OH). This modified molecule can be used in beverages, frozen desserts and gum. Unlike the others, it is stable in heat it can be used in baked and fried goods. Sucralose is minimally absorbed by the body and passes out unchanged.

The FDA approved sucralose in 1998. [7]

The first significant rumblings were in 2000, when osteopathic physician Joseph Mercola wrote an article entitled "The Secret Dangers of Splenda (Sucralose), an Artificial Sweetener". Since then, many others have chimed in.

In December of 2004, five separate false advertising lawsuits were filed against chemical sweetener manufacturer Johnson & Johnson/McNeil for claims made about its artificial sweetener Splenda.

On January 10, 2005, the "Truth About Splenda" website was created by The Sugar Assocation, an organization representing sugar beet and sugar cane farmers in the United States, in an effort to educate the public on their views.

List of sugar substitutes

The three primary compounds used as sugar substitutes in the United States are saccharin (e.g. Sweet'N Low), aspartame (e.g. Equal, NutraSweet) and sucralose (e.g. Splenda). In many other countries cyclamate is used extensively.

Natural sugar substitutes

1. Brazzein — Protein, 2,000x sweetness of sucrose (by weight), Exxx
2. Curculin — Protein, 550x sweetness (by weight), Exxx
3. Erythritol — 0.7x sweetness (by weight), 14x sweetness of sucrose (by food energy), 0.05x energy density of sucrose
4. Glycyrrhizin — 50x sweetness (by weight)
5. Glycerol — 0.6x sweetness (by weight), 0.55x sweetness (by food energy), 1.075x energy density, E422
6. Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates — 0.4x–0.9x sweetness (by weight), 0.5x–1.2x sweetness (by food energy), 0.75x energy density
7. Isomalt — 0.45x–0.65x sweetness (by weight), 0.9x–1.3x sweetness (by food energy), 0.5x energy density, E953
8. Lactitol — 0.4x sweetness (by weight), 0.8x sweetness (by food energy), 0.5x energy density, E966
9. Levulose —
10. Mabinlin — Protein, 100x sweetness (by weight), Exxx
11. Maltitol — 0.9x sweetness (by weight), 1.7x sweetness (by food energy), 0.525x energy density, E965
12. Mannitol — 0.5x sweetness (by weight), 1.2x sweetness (by food energy), 0.4x energy density, E421
13. Miraculin — Protein, nx sweetness (by weight), Exxx
14. Monellin — Protein, 3,000x sweetness (by weight), Exxx
15. Pentadin — Protein, 500x sweetness (by weight), Exxx
16. Sorbitol — 0.6x sweetness (by weight), 0.9x sweetness (by food energy), 0.65x energy density, E420
17. Stevia — 250x sweetness (by weight)
18. Tagatose — 0.92x sweetness (by weight), 2.4x sweetness (by food energy), 0.38x energy density
19. Thaumatin — Protein, — 2,000x sweetness (by weight), E957
20. Xylitol — 1.0x sweetness (by weight), 1.7x sweetness (by food energy), 0.6x energy density, E967

Artificial sugar substitutes

Note that because many of these have little or no food energy, comparison of sweetness based on energy content is not meaningful.

1. Acesulfame potassium — 200x sweetness (by weight), Nutrinova, E950, FDA Approved 2003
2. Alitame — 2,000x sweetness (by weight), Pfizer, Pending FDA Approval
3. Aspartame — 160-200x sweetness (by weight), NutraSweet, E951, FDA Approved 1981
4. Cyclamate — 30x sweetness (by weight), Abbott, E952, FDA Banned 1969, pending re-approval
5. Dulcin — 250x sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned 1950
6. Neohesperidine dihydrochalcone — 1,500x sweetness (by weight), E959
7. Neotame — 8,000x sweetness (by weight), NutraSweet, FDA Approved 2002
8. P-4000 — 4,000x sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned 1950
9. Saccharin — 300x sweetness (by weight), E954, FDA Approved 1958
10. Sucralose — 600x sweetness (by weight), Tate & Lyle, FDA Approved 1999
11. Sugar of Lead — ?? sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned

See also

• Shugr

External links

• Article on artificial sweeteners (PDF)
• Anti-sweetener article