Projects and Systems
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Wikipedia-Article "Projects"
- For the form of US public housing, see housing projects. For computer software for project management see project management software. For WikiPedia projects, see Wikipedia:WikiProject.
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. Temporary means that the project has an end date. Unique means that the project's end result is different than the results of other functions of the organization.
It can also comprise an ambitious plan to define and constrain a future by limiting it to set goals and parameters. The planning, execution and monitoring of major projects sometimes involves setting up a special temporary organization, consisting of a project team and one or more work teams. A project usually needs resources.
The word project comes from the Latin word projectum from projicere, "to throw something forwards" which in turn comes from pro-, which denotes something that precedes the action of the next part of the word in time (paralleling the Greek πρό) and jacere, "to throw". The word "project" thus actually originally meant "something that comes before anything else is done". When the word was initially adopted, it referred to a plan of something, not to the act of actually carrying this plan out. Something performed in accordance with a project was called an object. This use of "project" changed in the 1950s when several techniques for project management were introduced: with this advent the word slightly changed meaning to cover both projects and objects. However in certain projects there may still exist so called objects and object leaders, reflecting the older use of the words.
One may also think in terms of platonism, where ideas from the realm of ideals are projected onto the physical world. (See: Plato's allegory of the cave.)
Particularly liked by Western business, projects can subdivide into sub-projects and spawn an industrial sub-culture of project planning and project management, all oblivious to more holistic developments.
Some feel this habit of short-termism has permeated economic planning and personal growth to the detriment of cyclical and multi-cultural world views. Alternatives to project-centric planning include trend-oriented goal-setting and directional planning.
However, this view is contentious, and indeed industrial program management and portfolio management represent ways of administering a range of projects to fulfil an over-arching strategy.
Notable projects include:
- Manhattan Project: Developed the first nuclear weapon
- Polaris missile project: an ICBM control system
- Human Genome Project: To map the human genome
- Project Apollo: Landing a man on the moon
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Wikipedia-Article "Systems"
A system is an assemblage of related elements comprising a whole, such that each element may be seen to be a part of that whole in some sense. That is, each element is seen to be related to other elements of and/or the whole system. It is generally recognized that while any element of a system need not have a (direct) relationship with any other particular element of a system, any element which has no relationship with any other element of a system, cannot be a part of that system.
From the Latin and Greek, the term system meant to combine, to set up, to place together.
A system typically consists of components (or elements) which interface in order to facilitate the 'flow' of information, matter or energy. The term is often used to describe a set of entities which 'act' on each other, and for which a mathematical model or a logical model may be constructed encompassing the elements and their allowed actions.
A system may be a set of rules for governing behavior or organisation. Laws are a system which governs human social behavior. Grammar is a system which governs language usage (in this case, the grammatical elements are the system elements). Cladistics is a system for classifying evolutionary relationships among living things based on derived similarity.
A sub-system is a system which is a proper subset of another system.
- For the Macintosh operating system, which was called System up to version 7.5.5, see Mac OS.
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Background
At arbritary boundaries, a collection of interrelated components may be declared a system and may further be abstracted to be declared a component of a larger system. Systems enable "activities" to be performed. (It is tempting to say that systems enable "things" to be done—but that is confusing in this context). An engineering example of a system is often a circuit or a physical series.
Depending on the type of system, a system can often be distinguished from individual machines, elements or processes of that system by the number, arrangements and complexity of those elements. For example, a pulley is a machine, but an elevator, which incorporates pulleys (amongst other components), is a system. Going to the doctor is a process, but health care is a system.
In the natural world, we say that there are systems. For example, the solar system of nine planets orbiting the sun. In the human body, we refer to such systems as the nervous system, the circulatory system, the digestive system, the reproductive system, and the respiratory system. The entire body is also referred to as a system in terms of physiology.
In addition, all so-called "things" (Objects) are actually systems. For example, a cup is an object, but it is also a system for holding hot or cold liquid, or other material. The cup has a certain shape and a handle, it is made of non-porous material and so on, and it is put together in such a way as to provide a useful function. Describing this thing makes up information, and defines a system.
(A number of material points considered simultaneously is called a system of material points, or briefly a system, if some common principle governs the collection.)
Types of systems
An open system can be influenced by events outside of the declared boundaries of a system. A closed system is self-contained: outside events can have no influence upon the system. In practice many things are a mixture of the two. For example a prison is a closed system because the prisoners can't get out, and the wardens spend most of their time at the prison. However it is also an open system, because it depends on outside factors and the prisoners and wardens do go outside. Dynamic systems have components or flows or both, that change over time.
Another distinction is the relation of physical systems to conceptual systems. Physical systems are systems of matter and energy. Conceptual systems are made up of ideas. Conceptual systems generally exist to aid in the accomplishment of specific goals or may be used to model physical systems.
Systems in information and computer science
In computer science and information science, system could also be a method or an algorithm. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal System is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case in order to facilitate the flow of information).
System can also be used referring to a framework, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software to run, see platform.
Systems in operations research and management science
In operations research and organizational development (OD), organizations are viewed as human systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as sub-systems, processes and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book The Fifth Discipline. Systems thinking has been identified as an important leadership competency where an individual thinks globally when acting locally. Such person takes into account the potential consequences of a decision on other parts of the organization.
Organizational theorists such as Margaret J. Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.
See also
- Chaos theory
- Complex systems
- Computer system
- Cybernetics
- Donella Meadows' twelve leverage points to intervene in a system
- General semantics
- Holarchy
- Meta-systems
- Socio-technical systems
- Solar System
- Systems theory
- Systems thinking
- Systems Ecology
References
- H.Hertz (1956) Principles of Mechanics, Dover, U.S.A.