Violin
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Wikipedia-Article "Violin"
The violin is a bowed stringed musical instrument that has four strings tuned a perfect fifth apart, the lowest being the G just below middle C. It is the smallest and highest-tuned member of the violin family of string instruments, which also includes the viola and cello. A related bowed string instrument, the double bass technically belongs to the similar but distinct viol family.
A common colloquial name for the violin is the fiddle, and a violin is typically called a fiddle when used to play traditional music (see below). Occasionally the instrument is modified for playing in these styles. Cross-tunings, or scordatura, are more commonly found in traditional fiddling. Sheet music for a violin almost always uses the G clef (treble clef).
A person who plays violin is called a violinist or fiddler, and a person who makes or repairs stringed instruments is a luthier.
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Parts of the violin
A violin consists of a body or corpus, a neck, a bridge, a soundpost, four strings, and various fittings. The fittings are the tuning pegs, tailpiece, endpin and tailgut (to secure the tailpiece), possibly one or more fine tuners on the tailpiece, and perhaps a chinrest. (The chinrest may attach directly over the tailpiece or it may be to the left of it.)
Body
The body is two arched plates fastened to a garland of ribs with animal hide glue. The rib garland includes a top block, four corner blocks (sometimes omitted in cheap mass-produced instruments,) a bottom block, and narrow strips called linings, which help solidify the curves of the ribs, and provide extra gluing surface for the plates. The ribs are what is commonly seen as the "sides" of the box. From the top or back, the body shows an "hourglass" shape formed by an upper bout and a lower bout. Two concave C-bouts between each side's corners form the waist of this figure, providing clearance for the bow.
The best woods, especially for the plates, have been seasoned for many years in large wedges, and the seasoning process continues indefinitely after the violin has been made. Except for very few special cases, adhesives other than hide glue should not be used in violin repair or making, since they can be difficult or impossible to reverse when future repairs are in order. Parts attached with hide glue can be separated when needed by using heat, moisture and careful prying with a thin knife blade. A well-tended violin can outlive many generations of players, so it is wise to take a curatorial view when caring for a violin.
Top
Typically the top is made of quarter-sawn spruce, bookmatched at a strongly glued joint down the center, with two sound-holes (or "f-holes", from their resemblance to a stylized letter "f") precisely placed between the C-bouts and lower corners. The sound-holes affect the flex patterns of the top, or table, and less importantly, allow the box to breathe as it vibrates. A decorative inlaid set of three wooden strips, called purfling, runs around the edge of the top, and is said to give some resistance to cracks originating at the edge. It is also claimed to allow the top to flex more independently of the rib structure. Painted-on faux purfling on the top is usually a sign of an inferior instrument. A quarter-sawn bass bar fitted inside the top, running lengthwise under the bass foot of the bridge, gives added mass and rigidity to the top plate. Some cheaper mass-produced violins have an integral bass bar, carved from the same piece as the top, but this has the growth rings running at right angles to the optimal orientation. Ideally the top is glued on with slightly diluted hide glue, to make future removal possible.
Back and ribs
The back and ribs are typically made of maple, most often with a matching striped figure, called "flame." Backs may be one-piece slab-cut or quarter-sawn, or bookmatched two-piece quarter-sawn. Backs are also purfled, but in their case the purfling is less structurally important than for the top. Some fine old violins have scribed or painted rather than inlaid purfling on the back. The small semicircular extension of the back known as the "button" provides extra gluing surface for the crucial neck joint, and is neglected when measuring the length of the back.
Neck
The neck is usually maple with a flamed figure compatible with that of the ribs and back. It carries the fingerboard, typically made of ebony, but often some other wood stained or painted black. Ebony is considered the preferred material because of its hardness, beauty, and superior resistance to wear. Some very old violins were made with maple fingerboards, carrying a veneer of ebony. At the peg end of the fingerboard sits a small ebony or ivory nut, infrequently called the upper saddle, with grooves to position the strings as they lead into the pegbox. The scroll at the end of the pegbox provides essential mass to tune the fundamental body resonance of the instrument. Some "scrolls" are carved representations of animal or human heads, instead of the classical spiral volute most normally seen. The maple neck alone is not strong enough to support the tension of the strings without distorting, relying for that strength on its lamination with the fingerboard. For this reason, if a fingerboard comes loose (it happens) it is vital to slacken the strings immediately. The shape of the neck and fingerboard affect how easily the violin may be played. Fingerboards are dressed to a particular transverse curve, and have a small lengthwise "scoop," or concavity, slightly more pronounced on the lower strings, especially when meant for gut or synthetic strings.
Some old violins (and some made to appear old) have a grafted scroll, or a seam between the pegbox and neck itself. Many authentic old instruments have had their necks reset to a slightly increased angle, and lengthened by about a centimeter. The neck graft allows the original scroll to be kept with a Baroque violin when bringing its neck to conformance with modern standard.
Bridge
The bridge is a carefully carved piece of maple, most preferably with prominent medullary rays, showing a flecked figure. The bridge has several purposes: its top curve holds the strings at the proper height from the fingerboard in an arrangement permitting each to be touched separately by the bow. It also transmits the vibrations of the strings directly to the top, and through the sound post to the back. The mass distribution and flex of the bridge, acting as a mechanical acoustic filter, have a prominent effect on the sound. The sound post, or "soul post", fits precisely between the back and top, just to the tailward side of the treble bridge foot, and may be moved slightly when adjusting the tone of the instrument.
Tailpiece
The tailpiece may be wood, metal, or plastic, and anchors the strings to the lower bout of the violin by means of the tailgut, nowadays most often a loop of stout nylon monofilament, which rides over the lower saddle, a block of ebony set into the edge of the top, and goes around the endpin. The endpin fits into a tapered hole in the bottom block. Most often the material of the endpin is chosen to match the other fittings, for example, ebony, rosewood or boxwood. Very often the E string will have a fine tuning lever worked by a small screw turned by the fingers. Fine tuners may also be applied to the other strings, and are sometimes built in to the tailpiece.
Pegs
At the scroll end, the strings ride over the nut into the pegbox, where they wind around the tuning pegs. Strings usually have a colored "silk" wrapping at both ends, for identification and to provide friction against the pegs. The peg shafts are shaved to a standard taper, their pegbox holes being reamed to the same taper, allowing the friction to be increased or decreased by the player applying appropriate pressure along the axis of the peg while turning it. Various brands of peg compound or peg dope help keep the pegs from sticking or slipping. Peg drops are marketed for slipping pegs. Pegs may be made of ebony, rosewood, boxwood, or other woods, either for reasons of economy or to minimize wear on the peg holes by using a softer wood for the pegs.
Bow
The bow consists of a stick with a ribbon of horsehair strung between the tip and frog (or nut, or heel) at opposite ends. At the frog end, a screw adjuster tightens or loosens the hair. The frog may be decorated with two eyes made of shell, with or without surrounding metal rings. A flat slide usually made of ebony and shell covers the mortise where the hair is held by its wedge. A metal ferrule holds the hair-spreading wedge and the shell slide in place. Just forward of the frog, a leather grip or thumb cushion protects the stick and provides grip for the player's hand. Forward of the leather, a winding serves a similar purpose, as well as affecting the balance of the bow. The winding may be wire, silk, or whalebone (now imitated by alternating strips of yellow and black plastic.) Some student bows (particularly the ones made of solid fiberglass) substitute a plastic sleeve for grip and winding.
The hair of the bow is traditionally white horse (male) hair, although some cheaper bows use synthetic fiber. The hair must be rubbed with rosin occasionally so that it will grip the strings and cause them to vibrate. The stick is traditionally made of pernambuco or the less expensive brazilwood, although some student bows are made of fiberglass. Recent innovations have allowed carbon-fiber to be used as a material for the stick at all levels of craftsmanship.
Strings
Strings were first made of sheep's intestines, stretched, dried and twisted. Contrary to popular belief, violin strings were never made of cat gut. Such strings are still often used in historically accurate performances of music from the 18th century and earlier. They are also sometimes used in older instruments in fragile condition, where a modern, higher-tension string would potentially harm the instrument. Tonally, they can be compared to the speaking voice.
Later it was found that all-gut strings could be improved by winding them with metal. The resulting strings were stronger and more even, and being more massive, they were tuned to a higher tension, allowing more volume to be produced. Although plain or wound gut strings have a tendency to go out of tune and snap more easily than modern synthetic strings, nevertheless some players prefer the warm, singing tone of metal-wound gut strings.
Modern strings are most commonly either monofilament steel, or are wound with various metals, with a core of synthetic filaments, solid metal, or braided or twisted steel filaments. The uppermost E string is usually solid steel, either plain or wound with aluminium in an effort to prevent "whistling.". Gold plating delays corrosion of the steel and may also reduce whistling. Stainless steel gives a slightly different tone. Synthetic-core strings, the most popular of which is Perlon™ (a trade name for stranded nylon,) combine some of the tonal qualities of gut strings with greater longevity and tuning stability. They are also much less sensitive to changes in humidity than gut strings, and less sensitive to changes in temperature than all-metal strings. All-metal strings are stiff when newly replaced, and tend to go out of tune quickly. The price of these different string types varies dramatically; gut and gut-core strings are typically the most expensive, followed by leading synthetic core brands, and student steel strings at the lowest price range.
Acoustics
It has been known for a long time that the thickness of the wood and its physical qualities govern the sound of a stringed instrument such as the violin. The sound and tone of the violin is determined by how the belly and back plates of the violin behave acoustically, according to modes or schemes of movement determined by German physicist Ernst Chladni. Patterns of the nodes (places of no movement) made by sand or glitter sprinkled on the plates with the plate vibrated at certain frequencies are called "Chladni patterns", and are occasionally used by luthiers to verify their work before assembling the instrument. A scientific explanation includes a discussion of how the properties of the wood determines where the nodes occur, whether the plates move with end or diagonally opposite points rising together or in various mixed modes.
Sizes
Children learning the violin often use fractional sized violins, 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/10, and 1/16. Occasionally, even a 1/32 sized instrument is used.
The body length (not including the neck) of a 'full-size' or 4/4 violin is about 14 inches (or smaller in some models of the 17th century). A 3/4 violin is 13 inches, and a 1/2 size is 12 inches. Rarely, one finds a size referred to as 7/8 which is approximately 13.5 inches, sometimes called a "ladies' fiddle." Viola size is specified as body length in inches rather than fractional sizes. A 'full-size' viola averages 16 inches.
When determining the violin size appropriate for a child, a general rule is to have the child hold the instrument against the neck, and reach out past the end of the scroll. Some teachers feel that students can handle a size if they are able to reach around the end of the scroll and see the tips of the fingers, while others recommend smaller sizes as safer, preferring to have the scroll fall short of the student's wrist.
Beginners often rely on tapes on the finger board in several places for proper left hand finger plaement, but quickly abandon the tapes as they advance. Commercial decals made for this purpose are more convenient to install, and typically more accurate than individual tapes. Another commonly-used marking technique uses dots of 'white-out' on the fingerboard, which wear off in a few weeks with regular practice.
Playing the violin
The violin is usually held under the chin and supported by the left shoulder. The right hand either draws the bow across one or more of the strings near the bridge, causing the string to vibrate, or plucks the string. The left hand regulates the sounding length of the string by stopping it against the fingerboard with the fingertips, producing different pitches. With the left hand in one position, a continuous range of slightly more than two octaves may be sounded across the different strings.
See also: How to play the violin
Left Hand & Producing Pitch
Placement of the left hand fingers on the strings does not rely on frets; the player must stop the string at the right spot from skill alone, or else sound out of tune. To attain good intonation, violin players practice long hours training the fingers to land in the right places, learning to hear when a note is in or out of tune, and cultivating the ability to correct the pitch rapidly and automatically as notes are being played. "Singing" the note mentally helps to land in the right spot. Although adjusting to the desired pitch after landing the finger is indeed possible, the amount of adjustment needed may be greatly reduced by training the fingers to fall properly in the first place. That said, Jascha Heifetz, a genius of the violin, and said never to practice finger exercises, played very much in tune due to his ability to adjust more quickly than most people could hear.
The fingers are conventionally numbered 1 (index) through 4 (little finger). Especially in instructional editions of violin music, numbers over the notes may indicate which finger to use, with "O" indicating "open" string. The second finger may be either "low" or "high," corresponding to G or G# on the E string in first position. Similarly, the first finger may reach a half-step down for the F, and 3d and 4th fingers reach up for A# and C respectively.
The chart to the right shows the arrangement of notes reachable in first position. Note well: left hand finger placement is a matter of the ears and hand, not the eyes, that is, it has strong aural and tactile/kinesthetic components, with visual references being only marginally useful. Note also (not shown on this chart) that the spacing between note positions becomes closer as the fingers move "up" (in pitch) from the nut. The yellow bars on the sides of the chart represent three of the usual tape placements for beginners, at 1st, high 2nd, and 3d fingers.
Positions
The placement of the left hand on the fingerboard is characterized by "positions". First position, where most beginners start (some methods start in third position,) is nearest to the nut, or scroll end, and furthest from the player's face. The lowest note available in this position in standard tuning is an open G; the highest notes in first position are stopped with the fourth finger on the E-string, sounding a B, or reaching up a half step to the C two octaves above middle C.
Thus, in first position, the first finger placed on the E-string gives an F#. Pressing the first finger instead on a G (still on the E-string) is called second position. Third position is achieved when the first finger presses down on an A, and so on. The upper limit of the violin's range is largely determined by the skill of the player. A good player can easily play more than two octaves on a single string, and four octaves on the instrument as a whole.
Excepting only the lowest and highest notes, the same note can be played on multiple strings in different positions. That is, the "high" B note referred to above can be played not only by the fourth finger on the E-string in first position, but also by the fourth finger in fifth position on the A-string, in ninth position on the D-string, and in thirteenth position on the G-string.
Violinists often change positions on the lower strings, sometimes to the consternation of composers and much to the confusion of beginners. This is usually done to handle a musical passage which would otherwise require fast switching (or "crossing") of strings. It is also done to produce a particular timbre: the same note will sound substantially different depending on what string is used to play it. That "high" B, when played on the E-string (the highest, usually a mono-core metal string) can have a clear, even piercing timbre; the same "high" B played on the A-string or D-string or G-string (usually wrapped strings rather than mono-core) may sound "warmer" or less abrasive. For this reason violinists often avoid playing a single note on the E-string within a phrase of notes on the A-string, as one E-string note would stand out with a different timbre.
Sometimes the composer or arranger will specify the string to be used in order to achieve their desired tone quality. The most common indication uses the letter name of the string: for example, if a composer wants a passage that would otherwise be taken on the D-string to be played on the G-string, he writes "sul G" or "G saite" or "G corde" on the part. Occasionally, numbers are used, so the example might be written "4. corde" or "IV corde" (as above, with the highest string being #1 and the lowest #4).
Open strings
A special timbre results from playing a note without touching its string with a finger, thus sounding the lowest note on that string. Such a note is said to be played on an open string. Open string notes (G, D, A, E) have a very distinct sound resulting from absence of the damping action of a finger, and from the fact that vibrato (see below) is extremely difficult. Other than low G (which can be played in no other way), open strings are usually selected for special effects.
One striking effect that employs open strings is bariolage. This is the repeated alternation of notes played on two or more strings, where one of the notes is usually an open string. This string crossing is often rapid, and is best executed with a sinuous movement of the bow arm. Sometimes the same pitch as an open string will be fingered on an adjacent string, so that the alternation is between the same note on two strings, one stopped, one open, giving a rhythmic pulsating effect. Bariolage was a favorite device of Joseph Haydn, who used it for example in his string quartet Opus 50 no. 6, and in the "Farewell" Symphony. It is also prominently featured in the Preludio of J. S. Bach's E major partita for solo violin.
Playing an open string simultaneously with a stopped note on an adjacent string produces a bagpipe-like drone, often used by composers in imitation of folk music. Sometimes the two notes are identical (for instance, playing a fingered A on the D string against the open A string), giving a ringing sort of "fiddling" sound.
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| Pizzicato | 44 KB ▶(?) | |
| Vibrato | 55 KB ▶(?) | |
| See the Violins category at Wikipedia Commons for more media | ||
Double-stopping
Double stopping is when two separate strings are depressed (stopped) by the fingers, and bowed simultaneously, producing a chord. This is much harder than normal single-string playing as more than one finger has to be accurately placed on two different strings simultaneously. Sometimes moving to a higher position is necessary in order for it to be physically possible for the fingers to be placed in the correct places. Double stopping is also used to mean playing on three or all four strings at once, although such practices are more properly called triple or quadruple stopping. Collectively, double, triple and quadruple stopping is called multiple stopping.
Vibrato
Vibrato is a very common technique used by violinists which causes the pitch of a note to vary up and down quickly. This is achieved by moving the finger pressing on the string slightly forwards and backwards. There are two main types of vibrato: The one originating from the arm, and the one from the wrist. Both these styles produce a similar sound. The arm vibrato is more primitive. Violinists oscillate backwards from the actual note when using vibrato, never forward. Vibrato does little if anything to disguise an out-of-tune note. Vibrato is often perceived to create a more emotional sound, and it is employed heavily in music of the Romantic era. There are several different styles of vibrato ranging from the use of just the fingers, to the use of the wrist or even the whole forearm. These produce different effects and are favoured by different players for different styles of music. Music students are taught that unless marked in music, vibrato is assumed and even mandatory. This can be an obstacle to a classically trained violinist wishing to play in a style that uses little or no vibrato at all, such as many traditional fiddling styles.
The true purpose of vibrato has largely to do with adding interest to the sound, in the form of a shimmer created by the variations in projection of strongest sound. A well-made violin virtually points its sound pattern in different directions depending on slight variations in pitch.
Harmonics
Lightly touching the string with a fingertip at a harmonic node while bowing close to the bridge can create harmonics. Instead of the normal solid tone a wispy-sounding overtone note of a higher pitch is heard. Each node is at an integer division of the string, for example exactly half-way along the length of the string, or exactly one-third along the length of the string. The pitch produced in these two cases will be an octave higher in the case of halves, and an octave and a fifth higher in the case of the string vibrating in thirds.
Harmonics are marked in music with a little circle above the note that determines the pitch of the harmonic. There are two types of harmonics: natural harmonics and artificial harmonics.
Natural harmonics are the type of harmonic described in the first paragraph of this section, and are achieved by simply touching the string with one finger at a node point. This is a relatively easy technique, and can be done by most beginner to intermediate students.
Artificial harmonics, however, are much more difficult. They require pressing down a finger on one string (for example, first finger on the D string on the note "E"), and having another finger just touching the string a fourth higher, in this case on the position of the note "A". When the violinist stops the string with the first finger, and touches it lightly with the fourth finger in this way, the node one-fourth of the way along the string is touched, and the string will vibrate in four parts, sounding a tone two octaves above the note that is stopped (in this case, E). The distance between the two fingers must be extremely accurate, or else the harmonic will not sound. In addition, the pressure from the bow and the two fingers must be exactly right or it will not sound.
The "harmonic finger" can also touch at a major third above the pressed note, or a fifth higher. These harmonics are less commonly used because they are even more difficult to make sound well. In the case of the major third, the harmonic is higher in the overtone series, and does not speak as readily; in the case of the fifth, the stretch is greater than is comfortable for many violinists. The sounding pitch of the major third harmonic is two octaves and a major third above the lower note, and in the case of the fifth, it is an octave and a fifth above the lower note.
Traditional notation of artificial harmonics uses two notes on one stem: the lower note employs a round note-head representing where the string is strongly stopped with the first finger, and the upper note uses an open diamond note-head representing where the string is lightly touched with the fourth finger.
Elaborate passages in artificial harmonics can be found in virtuoso violin literature, especially of the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Right Hand & Tone Colour
The right arm & hand are responsible for tone quality, rhythm, dynamics, articulation, and certain (but not all) changes in timbre.
Bowing techniques
The violin produces louder notes with greater bow speed or more weight on the string. The two methods are not equivalent, because they produce different timbres; pressing down on the string tends to produce a harsher, more intense sound.
The sounding point where the bow intersects the string also influences timbre. Playing close to the bridge (sul ponticello) gives a more intense sound than usual, emphasizing the higher harmonics; and playing with the bow over the end of the fingerboard (sul tasto) makes for a delicate, ethereal sound, emphasizing the fundamental frequency.
There are several methods of 'attack' with the bow that produce different articulations
- Détaché - The term détaché simply means ‘separated’ and it can be applied to any notes not linked by a slur. Stopping the bow on the string deadens the vibrations and thus creates a muted accent, elastic détaché which covered off-the-string strokes, and dragged détaché (détaché traîné) where smooth bow changes leave no audible gap between each note. Video Example of Detache.
- Martelé - or "hammered," is a type of détaché stroke with a particularly strong attack.
- Collé - or "stuck," or "glued," is a stroke that begins from a heavily weighted bow resting motionless on the string. Ideally, the initial weight should be almost enough to cause an undesirable scratch sound.
- Legato - Of successive notes in performance, connected without any intervening silence of articulation. In practice, the connection or separation of notes is relative, and achieved through the presence or absence of emphasis, Accent and attack, as much as silences of articulation; degrees of connection and separation vary from legatissimo (representing the closest degree of connection), tenuto, portamento, legato, portato, non legato, mezzo-staccato, Staccato (the natural antonym of legato), to staccatissimo, and some of these terms have connotations going beyond simple degrees of connection or separation.
- Sautillé - A bowstroke played rapidly in the middle of the bow, one bowstroke per note, so that the bow bounces very slightly off the string of its own accord. It is not indicated in any consistent manner: sometimes dots are placed above or below the notes, sometimes arrow-head strokes, and sometimes the stroke is simply left to the performer's discretion. Spiccato and sautillé are sometimes used as synonyms, though Spiccato tends to be applied to a broader range of off-the-string strokes. Video Example of Sautille.
- col legno - Occasionally the strings are struck with the back of the bow (col legno). This gives a much more percussive sound, and is most effective when employed by a full orchestral violin section, since it produces little volume.
- "shuffle" - A repetitive pattern of slurs and accents, much used in some fiddling styles. Named shuffles include the Nashville shuffle, the Georgia shuffle, and the double shuffle, which is often considered to be a trick or showoff shuffle.
- "chopping" - A more modern percussive technique, in which the hair near the bottom of the bow is struck against the strings. It is used by some jazz musicians, including the Turtle Island String Quartet.
Pizzicato
When a note is marked pizz. (abbreviation for pizzicato) in the written music, it is played by plucking the string with the index finger of the right hand rather than by bowing. Sometimes in virtuoso solo music where the bow hand is occupied (or for show-off effect), left-hand pizzicato will be indicated by a "+" (plus sign) below or above the note. In addition, some players have acquired the trick of playing fast pizzicato passages using two alternating fingers of the right hand.
Another kind of pizzicato, snap pizzicato, was specified by Béla Bartók in one of his short pieces in his 44 Duos (No. 42, Arabian Song). Here, the player is supposed to pull the string vertically, pinching it between two fingers, then let the string snap forcibly onto the fingerboard, yielding a very sharp snapping sound.
Mute
Attaching a small metal or rubber device called a "mute" to the bridge of the violin alters the tone by adding mass to the bridge and so reducing its ability to vibrate freely, giving a more mellow tone, with fewer audible overtones. In performances it may give a desired dulled effect. While the effect on a single violin is noticeable, mutes are more often used in an orchestral situation with the entire section playing with muted violins. Parts to be played muted are marked con sord., for the Italian sordino, mute.
There are also massive metal, rubber, or wooden mutes available. These are known as "practice mutes" or "hotel mutes". Such mutes are not used in performance, but are used to deaden the sound of the violin in practice areas such as hotel rooms.
Tuning
Violins are tuned by turning the pegs in the pegbox under the scroll, or by winding the fine tuner screws at the tailpiece. A violin always has pegs, but Fine Tuners (also called adjustors) are optional. These permit the tension of the string to be adjusted in very small increments by rotating a small knob more easily than by using the pegs. (Adjustors are usually recommended for younger players, fractional sized instruments, those using high tension or metal strings, or beginners.) For experienced players, adjustors are most useful with solid metal strings; since they do not stretch as much as synthetics, solid-core strings can be touchy to tune with pegs alone. It is very common to use one on the E-string even if the others are not equipped with them.
The A string is tuned first, typically to 440 or 442Hz (see Pitch (music)). The other strings are then tuned to it in intervals of perfect fifths by bowing them in pairs.
Small, temporary tuning adjustments can also be made by stretching a string with the hand. After tuning, one should make a habit of checking that the bridge is standing straight and centered between the inner nicks of the f holes, since bridges are free to move about, being held in place only by friction and the tension of the strings.
The tuning G-D-A-E is used for the great majority of all violin music. However, any number of other tunings are occasionally employed (for example, tuning the G string up to A), both in classical music (where the technique is known as scordatura) and in some folk styles where it is called "cross-tuning."
Making violins
There is a three-dimensional geometric underlying construction that explains the main properties and placement of the different parts and proportions. The outer contour is designed by the violin maker, and today the outlines of the old masters' violins are usually used.
The traditional approach starts with a set of plans, which include a drawing of the outer shape of the instrument. From these plans a template is constructed, which can be made from thin metal or other materials, and is a flat "half-violin" shape. The template is used to construct a mould, which is a thick violin-shaped piece of wood.
Around the mould are built the sides (or ribs), which are flat pieces of wood curved by means of careful heating. The front and back are carved sections which fit on top. When the body is complete, the neck, which is carved out of a separate piece of wood (usually maple), is set in its mortise to complete the basic structure of the instrument, after which it is varnished.
Vital to the sound and playability of the instrument is setup, which includes adjusting the neck angle if needed, fitting the pegs so they turn smoothly and hold firmly, dressing the fingerboard to the proper scooped shape, fitting the soundpost and bridge, adjusting the tailgut and installing the tailpiece, and stringing up. A chinrest may be put on at this time.
Then the instrument begins the playing-in process, as its parts adjust to the string tension. The sound of a violin may be said to "open up" in the first weeks and months of use, a process which continues more gradually over the years.
Maintenance
"Quite as important as the excellence of the instrument is its care." -Carl Flesch, from The Art of Violin Playing
The violin itself requires careful maintenance and it should last and improve for many years. Most importantly, whenever the violin has been used the collected rosin should be wiped from the varnish on the violin (under the strings) and bow with a soft cloth. If left for long enough, the rosin will fuse with the varnish.
Cleaning the rosin off strings can also make a striking difference to the sound, and should be done regularly. Any kind of pure alcohol removes rosin and dirt very well but care must be exercised to prevent any alcohol from coming in contact with the varnished parts of the violin. The strings and fingerboard are the only parts which need alcohol for cleaning, and then only if the fingerboard is made from ebony. A neck or wooden chinrest does not react well to being cleaned in this way because the deliberately impregnated oil will be removed and eventually replaced with dirt. Ebony is the exception and plastic chinrests can also be cleaned with alcohol.
The violin should be occasionally checked by a technician, who will know if repairs need to be made. The tuning pegs may occasionally be lubricated with "peg drops"; (a solution of rosin in alcohol), or "peg dope" (a soft solid cake of rosin resembling soap) when they either slide too freely, causing the violin to slip out of tune often, or they do not slide freely enough, making tuning difficult.
Violinists carry replacement strings with their instruments to have one available in case a string breaks. A complete set of four replacement strings must be included because they differ in thickness and are not interchangeable. Even before breaking, worn strings may begin to sound tired and to become "false" over time, producing an unreliable pitch. Another common problem with strings is unravelling of the metal winding. Strings may need replacement every two or three months with frequent use. The higher strings require replacement more frequently than the lower strings – fortunately higher strings cost less. The price of strings varies, and the quality of the strings strongly influences the timbre of the sound produced. A teacher can advise students how often to change strings, as it depends on how much and how seriously one plays.
It is said that Niccolo Paganini purposefully weakened some of his strings so that in performance they would snap. He would then play the rest of the piece on the remaining strings, sometimes going into remarkably high positions in order to impress the audience. His "Variations on a Theme from Rossini's 'Moses'" is played on just the lowest string.
For the bow, the only real maintenance is regular cleaning of the stick with a cloth, and re-hairing. In the course of playing the violin, hairs are often lost from the bow, making it necessary to have it rehaired periodically, which is done by professionals at roughly the cost of a new set of strings. The old horse hair is replaced with new hair. Other maintenence may include replacing the wire lapping and leather grip, or lubricating the screw. Large cracks and breakages in the bow are usually fatal; they cannot be repaired like the body of the instrument can. A bow which has warped and is no longer straight can sometimes be bent back to true or re-cambered, but this must be done with heat by a craftsman, and it is not always successful or worthwhile.
When the bow is not being used the hair must be loosened in order to prevent the bow from becoming "sprung" and the hair stretched. There are now bows available made from fiberglass or carbon composite which are less fragile.
History
The violin first emerged in northern Italy in the early 16th century. While no instruments from the first decades of the century survive, there are several representations in paintings; some of the early instruments have only three strings. Most likely the first makers of violins borrowed from three different types of current instruments: the rebec, in use since the 10th century (itself derived from the Arab rebab), the Renaissance fiddle, and the lira da braccio. The earliest explicit description of the instrument, including its tuning, was in the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer, published in Lyons in 1556. By this time the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe.
It is said that the first real violin was built by Andrea Amati in the first half of the 16th century by order of the Medici family, who had asked for an instrument that could be used by street-musicians, but with the quality of a lute, which was a very popular instrument among the noble in that time. Andrea Amati, one of the famous luthiers, or lute-builders, in that time decided to use the technique of applying a mould to build the instrument very precisely. In addition to that, he made the instrument vaulted, for he knew that that would provide for a much greater tone than was common until then. Needless to say that the violin immediately became very popular, both among street-musicians and the noble, which is illustrated by the fact that the French king Charles IX ordered Amati to build a whole orchestra in the second half of the 16th century.
The oldest surviving violin, dated inside, is the "Charles IX" by Andrea Amati, made in Cremona in 1564. Perhaps the most famous, and certainly the most pristine is the "Le Messie" (also known as the 'Salabue') made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716 and never used. It is now located in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford.
The most famous violin makers, called luthiers, between the late 16th century and the 18th century included:
- Amati family of Italian violin makers, Andrea Amati (1500-1577), Antonio Amati (1540-1607), Hieronymous Amati I (1561-1630), Nicolo Amati (1596-1684), Hieronymous Amati II (1649-1740)
- Guarneri family of Italian violin makers, Andrea Guarneri (1626- 1698), Pietro of Mantua (1655-1720), Giuseppe Guarneri (Joseph filius Andreae) (1666-1739), Pietro Guarneri (of Venice) (1695-1762), and Giuseppe (del Gesu) (1698-1744)
- Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737) of Cremona
- Jacob Stainer (1617-1683) of Absam in Tyrol
It is still believed, perhaps erroneously, that at the beginning of the 18th century, the violin was built in a way that can be expressed as "perfect", as the instruments built by, for example, Antonio Stradivari, when played by a skilled player, can provide a constant, firm and expressive tone, from the depths of the G-string until the highest note, some four octaves higher. The Stradivarius model of violin has been copied thousands of times by the greatest luthiers of the following generations and now to the most exact tolerances technology can give us. It is commonly asserted that "Never since that time has a major improvement been made to the instrument", but changes have occurred, including:
- the fingerboard was made a little longer to be able to play even the highest notes,
- the fingerboard was tilted a little more, to produce even more volume as larger and larger orchestras became popular.
- nearly all old instruments were modified, including lengthening of the neck by one centimeter, in response to the raising of pitch that occurred in the 19th century.
- the bass bar of nearly all old instruments was made heavier to allow a greater string tension.
- the classical luthiers nailed and glued the instrument necks to the upper block of the body before gluing on the soundboard, while later luthiers mortise the neck to the body after completely assembling the body.
The result of these adjustments are instruments that are significantly different in sound and response from those that left the hands of their makers. Regardless, most violins nowadays are built superficially resembling the old instruments even in completely non-functional details such as the decorative scroll at the top of the neck.
Nevertheless, instruments of approximately 300 years of age, especially those made by Stradivari and Guarneri del Gesù, are the most sought after instruments (for both collectors and performers). In addition to the skill and reputation of the maker, an instrument's age can also influence both price and quality.
Jazz
The earliest references to jazz performance using the violin as a solo instrument are documented during the first decades of the 20th century. The first great jazz violinist was Joe Venuti who is best known for his work with guitarist Eddie Lang during the 1920s. Since that time there have been many superb improvising violinists including Stéphane Grappelli, Stuff Smith, Ray Perry, Ray Nance, Claude "Fiddler" Williams, Leroy Jenkins, Billy Bang, Mat Maneri, Malcolm Goldstein, and others.
Classical music
Since the Baroque era the violin has been one of the most important of all instruments in classical music, for several reasons. The tone of the violin stands out above other instruments, making it appropriate for playing a melody line. In the hands of a good player, the violin is extremely agile, and can execute rapid and difficult sequences of notes. Indeed, the violin seems to lend itself to virtuosity more than any other instrument (its only possible rival is the piano), and top violinists have amazed their audiences with their wizardry since the 17th century.
The violin is also considered a very expressive instrument, which is often felt to approximate the human voice. This may be due to the possibility of vibrato and of slight expressive adjustments in pitch and timbre. Many leading composers have contributed to the violin concerto and violin sonata repertories.
Violins make up a large part of an orchestra, and are usually divided into two sections, known as the first and second violins. Composers often assign the melody to the first violins (who are often given more technically difficult music), while second violins play harmony, accompaniment patterns or the melody an octave lower than the first violins. A string quartet similarly has parts for first and second violins, as well as a viola part, and a bass instrument, such as the cello or, rarely, the bass.
Popular music
While the violin has had very little usage in rock music compared to its brethren the guitar and bass guitar, independent artists such as Final Fantasy and Andrew Bird have recently increased interest with the onset of the genre known as violindie.
The hugely popular Motown recordings of the 60's and 70's relied heavily on strings as part of the trademark texture. Earlier genres of pop music, at least those separate from the Rock 'n' Roll movement, tended to make use of fairly traditional Orchestras, sometimes large ones; examples include the American "Crooners" such as Bing Crosby.
Though strings were heavily popular and relied upon in almost all types of music genre recordings in the 60's and 70's, disco music, which surged aggressively onto the music scene in the early to mid 1970's, also relied heavily upon strings within its compositions; in fact, almost all disco/dance music of that era incorporated the use of strings within its compositions and arrangements. After the sudden decline of disco began in the late 70's and early 80's, the use of strings not only dwindled in disco music, but ceased in almost all types of popular music during that time and more so immediately after disco's death. The 1980's saw an insurgence of electronic music mimicking strings with little or no use of traditional strings in music compositions.
Indian and Arabic pop music is filled with the sound of violins, both soloists and ensembles.
Folk music
Like many other instruments of classical music, the violin descends from remote ancestors, cruder in form, that were used for folk music. Following a stage of intensive development in the late Renaissance, largely in Italy, the violin had improved (in volume, tone, and agility), to the point that it not only became a very important instrument in art music, but proved highly appealing to folk musicians as well. As a folk instrument, the violin ultimately spread very widely, sometimes displacing earlier bowed instruments, and ethnomusicologists have observed its use in many locations throughout Europe, Asia, and the Americas.
In many traditions of folk music, the tunes are not written but are memorized by successive generations of musicians and passed on in both informal and formal contexts.
See the immediately following section on the fiddle for more information.
Fiddle
When played as a folk instrument, the violin is ordinarily referred to in English as a fiddle.
One very slight difference between "fiddles" and ordinary violins may be seen in American (e.g., bluegrass and old-time music) fiddling: in these styles, the bridge is often shaved down so that it is less curved. This makes it easier to play double stops, and often makes triple stops possible, allowing one to play chords.
Most musicians agree that the technical difference between a violin and a fiddle is the bridge. Most classical violinists prefer rounded bridges that allow them to more easily articulate the notes which have better clarity. Fiddlers often prefer flatter bridges that allow the playing of double notes and shuffles. In practice, most instruments are constructed with a rounded bridge to better accommodate the shape of the fingerboard.
Historically, the word fiddle also referred to a predecessor of today's violin. Like the violin, it tended to have 4 strings, but came in a variety of shapes and sizes. Another series of instruments which contributed to the development of the modern fiddle was the viol, which was played while held between the legs, and has a fretted fingerboard.
Fiddle styles
To a greater extent than classical violin playing, fiddle playing is characterized by a huge variety of ethnic or folk music traditions, each of which has its own distinctive sound, including, but not limited to:
- American fiddling, including
- Old Time fiddling
- New England style fiddling
- Cajun fiddling
- Texas style fiddling
- Contest Fiddling
- Bluegrass fiddling
- Balkan Music, Táncház (Hungarian) and Romanian music
- Canadian fiddling, including
- Cape Breton fiddling, with a distinct Scottish and Acadian influence
- Québécois fiddling, influenced from the Brittany area of northern France
- Newfoundland fiddling, with a strong Irish Sliabh Luachra style of playing
- English fiddling
- French fiddling (including a rich Breton fiddling tradition)
- Irish fiddling (with many distinct styles, including, for example, the Donegal fiddle tradition)
- Nordic folk fiddling (including Hardanger fiddling)
- Scottish fiddling
- Slovenian fiddling
- South Indian Carnatic fiddling
Fiddle players
Well known Irish fiddlers include Kevin Burke, Padraig O'Keefe, Paddy Canny, P.J. Hayes, Michael Gorman, John Vesey, Tommy Peoples, Tommy Potts, James Kelly, Fred Finn, and many others.
The KilBride Brothers are the best know welsh fiddlers.who plays Welsh, Shetland, Scotish, Irish, Breton Welsh.
Mark O'Connor is a well-known fiddler who mostly plays American styles.
English folk fiddle players include Dave Swarbrick and Ric Sanders, both of whom have been members of Fairport Convention, and the "darling" of the new generation of English folk musicians Eliza Carthy.
Famous Bluegrass fiddle players include John Hartford and Alison Krauss.
Charlie Daniels is a famous fiddle player in southern rock. He is perhaps most famous for the song "The Devil Went Down to Georgia".
Sharon Corr (of the folk/rock band, The Corrs) is well known for interchanging from classical violin style to Irish fiddle style from song to song (sometimes during the same song). Examples of this are the songs "The Right Time" and The Corrs' remake of the Fleetwood Mac hit, "Dreams".
Famous Canadian fiddlers include Nova Scotian fiddlers Ashley MacIsaac and Natalie MacMaster and Newfoundland fiddler Patrick Moran.
Doug Kershaw is a famous Louisiana player of Cajun fiddle music.
See also
For instruments related to the violin, see String instruments. See also Electric violin and Stroh violin. The piccolo violin, a transposing instrument playing a major third higher than written, appears in a few works by Bach.
Further reading and external links
- www.PabloSarasate.com
- Online Violin Dictionary, Violin Books and Ebooks, Sheet Music Downloads, Violin Journal - MusicForStrings.com
- Latin Violin, by Sam Bardfeld, ISBN 0962846775.
- The Contemporary Violin: ExtENDed Performance Techniques, by Patricia and Allen Strange, ISBN 0520224094
- Connie's Violin Page Resource page for violin teachers, students and parents
- Violin FAQ
- All About the Violin - Violin practice methods, music, and information violin making
- Anatomy of a violin
- The Fiddle and Alternative Strings Forum
- The geometric construction of the violin
- The history of the violin - A quick overview about the history of the violin, including answers to questions such as "Why old master instruments sound so good"
- the violin - A ThinkQuest 1999 website for education (history, manufacture, etc.)
- Violin Acoustics
- Wire-frame vibration mode animation (Click the "animation" button on Martin Schleske's home page.)
- ViolinMP3.com - Violin Information, MP3, Music Downloads and Webcasts, Violin Literature
- Violinist.com - An online community of violinists, including discussion, blogs, FAQ and a luthier directory.
- BeginBand.com has information about learning to play the violin as well as a soundclip.
