Silver and Flatware

47 palladium ← silver → cadmium Cu ↑ Ag ↓ Au periodic table
General
Name, Symbol, Number	silver, Ag, 47
Chemical series	transition metals
Group, Period, Block	11, 5, d
Appearance	lustrous white metal
Atomic mass	107.8682(2) g/mol
Electron configuration	[Kr] 4d10 5s1
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 18, 18, 1
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Density (near r.t.)	10.49 g/cm³
Liquid density at m.p.	9.320 g/cm³
Melting point	1234.93 K (961.78 °C, 1763.2 °F)
Boiling point	2435 K (2162 °C, 3924 °F)
Heat of fusion	11.28 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	258 kJ/mol
Heat capacity	(25 °C) 25.350 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T/K 1283 1413 1575 1782 2055 2433
Atomic properties
Crystal structure	cubic face centered
Oxidation states	1 (amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity	1.93 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies	1st: 731.0 kJ/mol
	2nd: 2070 kJ/mol
	3rd: 3361 kJ/mol
Atomic radius	160 pm
Atomic radius (calc.)	165 pm
Covalent radius	153 pm
Van der Waals radius	172 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity	(20 °C) 15.87 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity	(300 K) 429 W/(m·K)
Thermal diffusivity	(300 K) 174 mm²/s
Thermal expansion	(25 °C) 18.9 µm/(m·K)
Speed of sound (thin rod)	(r.t.) 2680 m/s
Young's modulus	83 GPa
Shear modulus	30 GPa
Bulk modulus	100 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.37
Mohs hardness	2.5
Vickers hardness	251 MPa
Brinell hardness	24.5 MPa
CAS registry number	7440-22-4
Notable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of silver iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP 105Ag syn 41.2 d ε - 105Pd γ 0.344, 0.280, 0.644, 0.443 - 106mAg syn 8.28 d ε - 106Pd γ 0.511, 0.717, 1.045, 0.450 - 107Ag 51.839% Ag is stable with 60 neutrons 108mAg syn 418 y ε - 108Pd IT 0.109 108Ag γ 0.433, 0.614, 0.722 - 109Ag 48.161% Ag is stable with 62 neutrons 111Ag syn 7.45 d β- 1.036, 0.694 111Cd γ 0.342 -
References

This page is about silver the chemical element. For the color, see silver (color). See also Silver (disambiguation)

Silver is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ag (from the traditional abbreviation for the Latin Argentum, from which Argentina is named) and atomic number 47. A soft white lustrous transition metal, silver has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any metal and occurs in minerals and in free form. This metal is used in coins, jewelry, tableware, and photography.

Notable characteristics

A chunk of silver

Silver is a very ductile and malleable (slightly harder than gold) univalent coinage metal with a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high degree of polish. It has the highest electrical conductivity of all metals, even higher than copper, but its greater cost has prevented it from being widely used in place of copper for electrical purposes.

Pure silver also has the highest thermal conductivity, whitest colour, the highest optical reflectivity (although it is a poor reflector of ultraviolet), and the lowest contact resistance of any metal. Silver halides are photosensitive and are remarkable for the effect of light upon them. This metal is stable in pure air and water, but does tarnish when it is exposed to ozone, hydrogen sulfide, or air with sulfur in it. The most common oxidation state of silver is +1; a few +2 compounds are known as well.

Applications

The principal use of silver is as a precious metal and its halide salts, especially silver nitrate, are also widely used in photography (which is the largest single end use of silver). Some other uses for silver are as follows:

• Electrical and electronic products, which need silver's superior conductivity, even when tarnished. For example, printed circuits are made using silver paints, and computer keyboards use silver electrical contacts. Silver is also used in high voltage contacts because it is the only metal that will not arc across contacts, hence it is extremely safe.
• Mirrors which need silver's superior reflectivity for visible light are made with silver as the reflecting material in a process called silvering. Common mirrors are backed with aluminium.
• Silver has been coined to produce money since 700 BCE by the Lydians, in the form of electrum. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure form. The words for "silver" and "money" are the same in at least 14 languages.
• The metal is chosen for its beauty in the manufacture of jewelry and silverware, which are traditionally made from the silver alloy known as Sterling silver, which is 92.5% silver.
• The malleability, non-toxicity and beauty of silver make it useful in dental alloys for fittings and fillings.
• Silver's catalytic properties make it ideal for use as a catalyst in oxidation reactions; for example, the production of formaldehyde from methanol and air by means of silver screens or crystallites containing a minimum 99.95 weight-percent silver.
• Used to make solder and brazing alloys, electrical contacts, and high capacity silver-zinc and silver-cadmium batteries.
• Silver sulfide, also known as Silver Whiskers, is formed when silver electrical contacts are used in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen sulfide.
• Silver fulminate is a powerful explosive.
• Silver chloride can be made transparent and is used as a cement for glass.
• Silver chloride is also a widely used electrode for pH testing and potentiometric measurement
• Silver iodide has been used in attempts to seed clouds to produce rain.
• In legend, silver is traditionally seen as harmful to supernatural creatures like werewolves and vampires. The use of silver fashioned into bullets for firearms is a popular application.
• Silver oxide is used as a positive electrode (cathode) in watch batteries.
• Colloidal silver is a possible antibacterial / antibiotic treatment that requires further clinical testing to support actual efficacy.
• Silver nitrate (liquid) and silver sulfadiazine cream (SSD Cream) were the "standard of care" for the antibacterial/antibiotic treatment of serious burns until the late 1990's. Now, Acticoat Burn Dressings (activated silver dressings) have largely replaced those earlier treatments.

History

Silver bull with spouted vessel, 3100-2900 BC.

Silver (from Anglo-Saxon seolfor, compare Old High German silabar; Ag is from the Latin argentum) has been known since ancient times. It is mentioned in the book of Genesis, and slag heaps found in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate that silver was being separated from lead as early as the 4th millennium BCE.

Silver has been used for thousands of years for ornaments and utensils, for trade, and as the basis for many monetary systems. Its value as a precious metal was long considered second only to gold. In Ancient Egypt and Medieval Europe, it was often more valuable than gold.

Associated with the moon, as well as with the sea and various lunar goddesses, the metal was referred to by alchemists by the name luna.

One of the alchemical symbols for silver is a crescent moon with the open part on the left (see picture, right).

The metal mercury was thought of as a kind of silver, though the two elements are chemically unrelated; its Latin and English names, hydrargyrum ("watery silver") and quicksilver, respectively, reflect this history.

In heraldry, the argent, in addition to being shown as silver (this has been shown at times with real silver in official representations), can also been shown as white. Occasionally, the word "silver" is used rather than argent; sometimes this is done across-the-board, sometimes to avoid repetition of the word "argent" in blazon.

Europeans found a huge amount of silver in the New World in Zacatecas and Potosí, which triggered a period of inflation in Europe. The conquistador Pizarro was said to have resorted to having his horses shod with silver horseshoes due to the metal's abundance, in contrast to the relative lack of iron in Peru. Silver, which was extremely valuable in China, became a global commodity, contributing to the rise of the Spanish Empire. The rise and fall of its value affected the world market.

The Rio de la Plata was named after silver (in Spanish, plata), and in turn lent the meaning of its name to Argentina.

Silver mining was a driving force in the settlement of western North America, with major booms for silver and associated minerals (lead, mostly) in the galena ore silver is most commonly found in. Notable "silver rushes" were in Colorado, Nevada, California and the Kootenay region of British Columbia, notably in the Boundary and "Silvery Slocan".

Occurrence

Silver ore

The reverse side of the American Silver Eagle bullion coin.

Silver is found in native form, combined with sulfur, arsenic, antimony, or chlorine and in various ores such as argentite (Ag₂S) and horn silver (AgCl). The principal sources of silver are copper, copper-nickel, gold, lead and lead-zinc ores obtained from Canada, Mexico, Peru, Australia and the United States.

This metal is also produced during the electrolytic refining of copper. Commercial grade fine silver is at least 99.9% pure silver and purities greater than 99.999% are available. Mexico is the largest silver producer. According to the Secretary of Economics of Mexico, it produced 80,120,000 troy ounces (2492 metric tons) in 2000, about 15% of the annual production of the world.

Because the lion's share of the world's silver deposits happen to be concentrated in the Americas, silver was far more valuable before the Age of Discovery; on average, about one-sixth or one-seventh the cost of gold. Now, however, silver is relatively cheap compared to other precious metals, and a mass of silver is now worth only about 1/60 the same mass of gold. In turn, copper is about 1/70 as valuable as silver.

Isotopes

Naturally occurring silver is composed of the two stable isotopes Ag-107 and Ag-109 with Ag-107 being the more abundant (51.839% natural abundance). Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterised with the most stable being Ag-105 with a half-life of 41.29 days, Ag-111 with a half-life of 7.45 days, and Ag-112 with a half-life of 3.13 hours.

All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than an hour and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 3 minutes. This element also has numerous meta states with the most stable being Ag-128m (t_* 418 years), Ag-110m (t_* 249.79 days) and Ag-107m (t_* 8.28 days).

Isotopes of silver range in atomic weight from 93.943 u (Ag-94) to 123.929 u (Ag-124). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Ag-107, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before Ag-107 are palladium (element 46) isotopes and the primary products after are cadmium (element 48) isotopes.

The palladium isotope Pd-107 decays by beta emission to Ag-107 with a half-life of 6.5 million years. Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high enough Pd/Ag ratio to yield measurable variations in Ag-107 abundance. Radiogenic Ag-107 was first discovered in the Santa Clara meteorite in 1978. The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. Pd-107 versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly been melted since the accretion of the solar system, must reflect the presence of live short-lived nuclides in the early solar system.

Precautions and health effects

Silver plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of silver are a subject of dispute. Silver itself is not toxic but most of its salts are and some may be carcinogenic.

Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, wrote that silver had beneficial healing and anti-disease properties, and the Phoenicians used to store water, wine, and vinegar in silver bottles to prevent spoiling. In the early 1900's people would put silver dollars in milk bottles to prolong the milk's freshness. Silver compounds were used successfully to prevent infection in World War I before the advent of antibiotics, and Silver compounds are still widely used externally today to accelerate healing in burn victims.

Silver and compounds containing silver (like colloidal silver) can be absorbed into the circulatory system and become deposited in various body tissues leading to a condition called argyria which results in a blue-grayish pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Although this condition does not harm a person's health, it is disfiguring and usually permanent. Argyria is rare and mild forms are sometimes mistaken for cyanosis.

Silver-ions and silver compounds show a toxic effect on some bacteria, viruses, algae and fungi typical for heavy metals like lead or mercury, but without the high toxicity to humans that is normally associated with them. It's germicidal effects kills many microbial organisms in vitro (i.e. in a test tube or a petri dish). The exact process by which this is done is still not well understood, although several different theories exist. One of these is a process generally known for heavy metals called the oligodynamic effect, which goes a long way explaining the effect on microbial lifeforms but does not explain certain antiviral functions.

Today, various kinds of silver compounds, or devices to make solutions or colloids containing silver, are sold as remedies for a wide variety of diseases. Although mostly harmless, some people using these home-made solutions use far too much and develop argyria over a period of months or years, and several have been documented in the last few years in the medical literature, including one possible case of coma associated with a high intake of silver (see medical references). It is strongly advised to notify a doctor when taking silver as a form of self-medication.

The widespread use of silver went out of fashion with the invention of antibiotics.

References

• Los Alamos National Laboratory – Silver

External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Silver

• WebElements.com – Silver
• Chart: Silver in Dollar
• World mine production of silver, by country
• The Silver Institute A silver industry website
• A collection of silver items Samples of silver

Data

• Current silver price charts & quotes

Publications on health effects

• Systemic argyria associated with ingestion of colloidal silver
• Myoclonic status epilepticus following repeated oral ingestion of colloidal silver
• Specific Inactivation of Herpes Simplex Virus by Silver Nitrate at Low Concentrations and Biological Activities of the Inactivated Virus
• Prevention of Herpes Keratoconjunctivitis in Rabbits By Silver Sulfadiazine

Starch-polyester disposable cutlery

Cutlery refers to any hand utensil used in preparing, serving, and especially eating food. It is more usually known as silverware or flatware in the United States, where cutlery can have the more specific meaning of knives and other cutting instruments. This is probably the original meaning of the word. Since silverware suggests the presence of silver, the term tableware has come into use.

The major items of cutlery in the western world are the knife, fork and spoon. Traditionally, good quality cutlery was made from silver (hence the U.S. name), though steel was always used for more utilitarian knives, and pewter was used for some cheaper items, especially spoons. From the nineteenth century, Electroplated Nickel Silver (EPNS) was used as a cheaper substitute; nowadays, most cutlery, including quality designs, is made from stainless steel. Plastic cutlery is made for disposable use, and is frequently used in fast food or take-away outlets and provided with airline meals.

Two forms of utensil combining the functionality of various pairs of cutlery are the spork (spoon / fork) and knork (knife / fork).

Cutlery gets its name from the term for a person skilled in making knives, a cutler. The Worshipful Company of Cutlers was one of the London livery companies, reflecting the importance of this trade in the Middle Ages.

The "Master Cutler" was the name of a train that ran between London Marylebone and Sheffield (the centre of the cutlery manufacture in the UK) during the 1950s and late 1960s.

See also

• List of eating utensils
• List of food preparation utensils

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