Sassanian
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 The Sassanid Empire in the time of Shapur I; the conquests west of the Euphrat were only temporally |
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| Official language | Pahlavi (Middle Persian) | ||
| Dominant Religion | Zoroastrianism | ||
| Capital | Ctesiphon | ||
| Sovereigns | Shahanshah of the Iran (Eranshahr) | ||
| First Ruler | Ardashir I | ||
| Last Ruler | Yazdegerd III | ||
| Establishment | 224 AD | ||
| Dissolution | 651 AD | ||
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| Part of the History of Iran | |||
The Sassanid dynasty (Sassanian in Persian: ساسانیان) was the name given to the kings of Persia, which includes all of present-day Iran, during the era of the second Persian Empire, from 224 until 651, when the last Sassanid shah, Yazdegerd III, lost a 14-year struggle to drive out the Umayyad Caliphate, the first of the Islamic empires. The Sassanid rulers of Persia ruled over territories roughly encompassing parts of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, parts of Turkey, (during Khosrau II's rule Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon), parts of Syria, Northern India, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia and Arabia. By the Sassanids, their Empire was called Iran or Eranshahr. The Sassanid era is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran.
The term Sassanids or Sassanian
Ardashir I, the establisher of the Sassanids was grandson of Sassan, the great priest of Temple of Anahita. Because of Ardashir's kinship to Sassan, his dynasty which ruled Persia between 226 to 651 was called the Sassanian or Sassanids by later historians. Nevertheless during the time of the Sassanids, Persians called their kingdom Eranshahr. The Romans didn't recognize the Sassanids for some time, using the word Parthian to describe events related to the Persian empire of its eastern borders.
Origin
Ardashir's ancestors were all Zoroastrian priests who were also local governors of Persis. His father Papag (or Papak or Babak) was the ruler of a small town called Kheir. His mother was Rodhagh, whose father was provincial governor of Pars.
Upon Sassan's death, Papak (Babak) deposed the previous king of Persis (Pars), Gochihr, and took his throne. During his father's reign, Ardashir ruled the town of Darabjird and received the title of "argobadh". Upon Papag's death, Ardashir's elder brother Shapur ascended to the throne. However, Ardashir rebelled against his brother and took the kingship for himself in 208 AD.
He and his successors created a vast empire, based in Firouzabad, Pars, which included most of those lands of the old Achaemenid Persian empire east of the Euphrates River. The Sassanids wanted to recreate the glories of ancient Persia and claimed to Persianise the country, however due to unknown reasons they didn't cite anything about the former Persian empire of Achaemenids in their records or carvings.
They made Zoroastrianism the state religion and claimed in inscriptions to have persecuted other faiths (although these claims are not reflected in native Jewish and Christian sources of the time), albeit their religious policy was quite contradictory from king to king. It was the Sassanid kings long sought-after goal to reunify all of the old Achaemenid territory, which brought them into frequent wars against the Roman Empire and later on the Byzantine Empire.
History
Early history (224-310)
Ardashir rapidly extended his territory, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars and gaining control over the neighboring provinces of Kerman, Isfahan, Susiana, and Mesene. This expansion brought the attention of the Parthian Great King Artabanus IV, Ardashir's overlord and ruler of the Parthian Empire, who marched against him in 224. Their armies clashed at Hormizdeghan, and Artabanus was killed. Ardashir went on to invade the western provinces of the now defunct Parthian Empire. Crowned in 226 as the sole ruler of Persia, and taking the title Shahanshah "King of Kings" (his consort Adhur-Anahid took the title "Queen of Queens"), Ardashir finally brought the 400 year-old Parthian Empire to an end and began four centuries of Sassanid rule.
Over the next few years, Ardashir further expanded his new empire to the east and northwest, conquering the provinces of Sistan, Gorgan, Khorasan, Margiana (in modern Turkmenistan), Balkh, and Chorasmia. Bahrain and Mosul were also added to Sassanid possesions. Furthermore, the kings of Kushan, Turan, and Mekran recognized Ardashir as their overlord. In the West, assaults against Hatra, Armenia and Adiabene met with less success.
Ardashir's son Shapur I (241–272) continued this expansion, conquering Bactria and Kushan, while leading several campaigns against Rome. Penetrating deep into Roman territory, Shapur conquered and plundered Antiochia in Syria (253 or 256); and finally defeated the Roman emperors Gordian III, Philip the Arab and Valerian. The latter was taken (259) into Persian imprisonment after the Battle of Edessa, a tremendous and hitherto unknown disgrace for the Romans. Shapur celebrated his victory by carving the impressive rock reliefs in Naqsh-e Rostam, for example with Bishapur, as well as a monumental inscription in Persian and Greek with Naqs i Rustam in the proximity of Persepolis.
Between 260 and 263 Shapur I had lost his conquest to Odaenathus, an ally of the Romans. Shapur II (ruled 309-379) regained the lost territories, however, in three successive wars with the Romans.
Shapur had intensive development plans. In many cities created by Shapur there were settlers from the Roman territories, which included Christians, who could exercise their faith there. Bishapur and Nishapur are the two cities who were named after him.
Manichaeism was favoured by Shapur. He protected Mani and sent many Manichaeist missionaries abroad. He was also a friend of a Babylonian rabbi called Shmuel (Talmud); this friendship was advantageous for Jewish community and gave them a relaxation from the oppressive laws enacted against them.
After Shapur, his successors Bahram I (273-276) and Bahram II (276-293) persecuted Mani and his followers under pressure from Magi. Under Bahram II Mani was jailed and executed shortly after.
After Bahram II, King Narseh (293-302) attacked the Romans, but after defeating the emperor Galerius near Callinicum on the Euphrates in 296 was completely defeated in 297. Areas in Mesopotamia were lost to Romans. However the Sassanids, like Romans had not only a fight on one front, the new Persian realm had to set itself against intruders from other fronts, the passports of the Caucasus had to be likewise defended like the always endangered northeast border, where the Sassanids had to fight first against the Kushans, later against the White huns and the Turks. Except for rare occasions they did not show themselves as a serious threat for the Sassanids.
Persia in the Sassanid dynasty witnessed two golden eras. The first was during the reign of Shapur II (310-379) and the second, which was longer, from 499 when Kavadh I became king again til 622 when emperor Heraclius started invading Assyria. In these eras the empire was at its greatest extent and the arts and science flourished. Because of effective central authority the people were relatively prosperous and comfortable.
First golden era (310-379)
After the conquests of Shapur I, the Sassanids started to decline in authority and power. A series of weak monarchs caused the empire to lose many of its lands to its enemies. Arabs from the south started to ravage and plunder the southern cities of the empire; they even managed to attack the province of Fars, the birthplace of the Sassanid kings, causing much destruction. When King Hormizd II died, the Persian magnates killed his eldest son, blinded the second, and imprisoned the third (Hormizd afterwards escaped to the Romans); the throne was reserved for the unborn child of one of the wives of Hormizd. It is said that Shapur may have been the only king in history to been crowned in utero: the crown was placed upon his mother's belly. This child, named Shapur, was therefore born king; the government was conducted by his mother and the magnates. But when Shapur came of age, he turned out to be one of the greatest monarchs of the dynasty.
He first attacked and crushed the Arabs in the south, and he then started his first campaign against Romans in the west. After initial success, his conquest came to a halt following the Siege of Singara due to raids by nomads in the eastern borders of the empire specially in Transoxiana which was utmost important for Sassanids because of Silk road and the fact that his military force was not sufficient to hold the captured cities. He concluded a peace treaty in conclusion of his first campaign with Constantius II in which both sides agreed not to attack each others territory for a limited period of time.
He then marched east toward Transoxiana, to encounter the eastern nomads. After defeating the White Huns, he along with nomad king, Grumbates, started his second campaign against the Romans in year 359, this time with full military force and support from nomads. Siege of Amida marked the first success of a campaign that was overwhelmingly successful for the Sassanid Persians and a total of 5 Roman provinces were ceded to Persians after its completion. By his death the Persian Empire was stronger than ever before, (considerably larger than when he came to the throne), the eastern enemies were pacified, and Persia had regained control over Armenia.
Under his reign the collection of the Avesta was completed, heresy and apostasy punished, and the Christians persecuted. This was a reaction against the Christianization of the Roman Empire by Constantine. On the other hand Shapur II like Shapur I was amicable towards Jews, they lived in relative freedom and gained many advantages in his period. (See also Raba (Talmud) )
Intermediate era (379-498)
After Shapur II's death till Kavadh I's first coronation, Persia was more or less stable with few wars against the Byzantine Empire. Throughout this era Sassanid religious policy differed dramatically from king to king. Yazdegerd I (399-420) was friendly towards Christians and stopped the persecution Christians to a point that he even punished the violating nobles priests, in contrast Yazdegerd II (438-457) was very intolerant and suspicious of other religions in particular Christianity. This sense of mistrust made him expel all the Christians from the governing body and army. During his reign the Armenian rebellion for Christianity was crushed in the famous Battle of Vartanantz in order to establish Zoroastrianism in Armenia.
In the beginning of the 5th century , the Hephthalites (White Huns) along with different other nomadic attacked Persia; at first Bahram V and Yazdegerd II inflicted decisive defeats against them and made them retreat eastward, but then they again re-appeared in the end of 5th century and this time they defeated the Firuz (or Peroz) I (457-484)in 483, Following the victory Huns invaded and plundered eastern parts of Persia for 2 years and for some years thereafter exacted heavy tribute.
These attacks brought instability and chaos to the kingdom. Peroz I tried again to drive out Hephthalites but on the way to Herat, he and his army got trapped (who was set by Huns) in the desert, following his death with the whole Persian army, Hephthalites advanced forward to the city of Herat. Empire was submerged into deep chaos, eventually, a noble Persian from the old family of Karen, Zarmihr (or Sokhra), restored some degree of order. He raised Balash, one of Peroz's brothers, to the throne. It was not until the reign of Khosroe (or Khosrau) I that the Huns were crushed forever.
Second golden era (498-622)
The second golden era started after second coronation of Kavadh I with the help of Ephthalites. Kavadh joined the Ephthalites and began war against the Romans. In 502 he took Theodosiopolis (Erzurum) in Armenia. In 503 Amida (Diarbekr) on the Tigris. In 505 an invasion of Armenia by the western Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice, during which the Romans paid subsidies to the Persians for the maintenance of the fortifications on the Caucasus. Although he could not free himself from the yoke of the Ephthalites, he succeeded in restoring order in the interior and fought with success against the Romans. He built some towns which were named after him, and began to regulate the taxation.
After Kavadh I, his son Khosrau I also known as Anushirvan ("with the immortal soul") (531-579) ascended to the throne, He is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. He reformed the tax system and reorganized the army and the bureaucracy, tying the army more closely to the central government than to local lords. His reign witnessed the rise of the dihqans (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system. Khosrau was a great builder, embellishing his capital, founding new towns, and constructing new buildings. He rebuilt the canals and restocked the farms, which had been destroyed in the wars. He built strong fortifications at the passes and placed subject tribes in carefully chosen towns on the frontiers, so that they could act as guardians of the state against invaders. (For more about Khosrau I's reforms [1]).
Justinian paid Khosrau 440,000 pieces of gold as a bribe to keep the peace (Khosrau broke the "eternal peace" of 532 in 540 and invaded Syria, where he collected money from the different cities). He was tolerant of all religions, though he decreed that Zoroastrianism should be the official state religion, but he was not unduly disturbed when one of his sons became a Christian.
After him Hormizd IV took the throne, he was also a vigorous ruler but during Bahram Chobin's crisis, empire saw a short lived chaos. However it stabilized soon after with ascend of Khosrau II. Following the civil wars in Byzantine he started full scale invasion Byzantine empire. The Sassanid dream of restoring the Achaemenid boundaries was close to completion when Jerusalem and Damascus fell to Khosrau II. Soon after, Egypt was conquered. Even Constantinople was under siege in 626 by Slavic and Avar forces supported by the Persians. In these years Persian art, music and architecture reached to their highest peak, the royal court was in a splendor that wasn't seen before.
Decline and fall (622-651)
- See also: Fall of Sassanid dynasty
- See also: Islamic conquest of Iran
Khosrau II had overextended his army and overtaxed the people. The Byzantine emperor Heraclius retaliated with a tactical move by abandoning his besieged capital and sailing up the Black Sea to attack Persia from the rear. During Heraclius's campaign in the Persian Empire in the 620s, mutual suspicion arose between Khosrau II and his general Shahrbaraz. Byzantine agents showed Shahbaraz letters indicating that Khosrau was planning the general's execution. This kept one of the main Persian armies and its best general neutral during this crucial period, speeding the end of the war in favour of the Byzantines.
Heraclius acquired the assistance of the Khazars and other Turkic troops. In the absence of two of Sassanids' greatest Eran spahbods, Shahin and Shahrbaraz (who was away in Anatolia fearing that Khosrau wanted him dead with the main Persian army) and due to the fact that 15 years of war had exhausted the Persians, Heraclius managed to defeat several Persian armies, culminating in a battle at Nineveh, where the Byzantines (without the Khazars, who had left Heraclius) defeated the Persian army under the command of Rhahzadh. He then marched through Mesopotamia and Western Persia sacking Takht-e Soleyman and the Palace of Dastugerd, where he received the news of the murder of his rival Khosrau II.
Chaos and civil war followed the defeat. Over a period of fourteen years and twelve successive kings, the Sassanid Empire was weakened considerably, and the power of the central authority passed into the hands of the generals. It took years for a strong king to emerge from a series of coups, but the Sassanids never got time to completely recover.
In the spring of 632, a grandson of Khosrau, Yazdegerd III, ascended the throne, and in that same year the first Arab squadrons made their first raids into Persian territory. Years of warfare had exhausted both the Byzantines and the Persians. The later Sāssānids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers. These factors facilitated the Arab invasion in the seventh century.
This was the beginning of the end. Yazdegerd was a boy, at the mercy of his advisers, incapable of uniting a vast country which was crumbling into a number of small feudal kingdoms. Rome no longer threatened. The threat initially came from the small, disciplined armies of Khalid ibn Walid, once one of Muhammad's chosen companion-in-arms and now, after the Prophet's death, the leader of the Arab army. Unfortunately, under the Caliph `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, a Muslim army defeated a larger Persian force under the lead general Rostam Farrokhzād at the plains of al-Qādisiyyah
The Parsees
- Main article: Parsees
Following the collapse of Sassanids, Zoroastrians increasingly became a persecuted minority in Persia. A number of them migrated to Gujarat, India, where they were allowed greater freedom to observe their old customs and preserve the Zoroastrian faith. They still use the old Persian calendar, counting the years from the accession of Yazdegerd, on June 16, 632 CE. Old dynastic calendars measured time by the reigns of various rulers; according to the Parsees, the reign of Yazdegerd has not ended.
Government
The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, with the capital at Ctesiphon in the Khvarvaran province. The Sassanids system of social stratification reinforced by Zoroastrianism consciously sought to resuscitate Persian traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence. Their rule was characterized by considerable centralization, ambitious urban planning, agricultural development, and technological improvements.
Sassanid rulers adopted the title of Shāhanshāh (the King of Kings), as sovereigns over numerous petty rulers, known as shahrdars. Sassanid Queens had the title of Banebshenan banebshen (the Queen of Queens).
Sassanid rule and the system of social stratification were reinforced by Zoroastrianism, which became the dominant religion, but not the official state religion, because other religions were still allowed (this is a controversially discussed topic, see for example Wiesehöfer, Ancient Persia, or the Cambridge History of Iran, vol 3). The Zoroastrian priesthood became immensely powerful. The head of the priestly class, the Mobadan (Magi), along with the military commander, the Iran (Eran) Spahbod, and the head of the bureaucracy (Chancellor), were among the great men of the state.
Conflicts
Initially Sassanids, like Parthians, were in constant hostility with Roman Empire, and following the division of the Roman empire in year 395, Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at Constantinople, replaced Roman Empire as Persia's principal Western enemy, and hostilities between the two empires became even more frequent.
In the east Kushan Empire and different nomadic tribes such as White Huns were empire's main enemies. These nomads constantly ravaged eastern provinces of the empire. In the south Bedouin Arab tribes occasionally raided the Empire. Kingdom of Al-Hirah, a Sassanid vassal kingdom was established to form a buffer zone between the Empire mainland and those tribes.
In the north, Khazars and other Turkic nomads frequently assaulted northern provinces of the Empire. They even managed to plunder Medes in year 634 but shortly after were defeated and driven out by a Persian army. Sassanid built many fortifications in Caucasus region to halt these attacks. Sassanid fortress in Derbent, Southern Russia is one of the very few remaining fortifications left in this region.
Iranian society under Sassanids
Historians believe that society was divided into four classes: Priests (Atorbanan in Persian:آتروبانان), Warriors (Arteshtaran in Persian:ارتشتاران), Secretaries (Dabiran in Persian:دبيران), and Commoners (Vasteryoshan-Hootkheshan in Persian: هوتخشان-واستريوشان). At the center of Sassanid caste system was Shahanshah (king of kings) ruling over all the nobilities.
Sassanid society was very complex with many different people (including nomadic people) living inside the empire each having a separate organization. The royal princes, petty rulers, great landlords, and priests together constituted a privileged stratum, and the social system appears to have been fairly rigid. This caste system continued even in early Islamic period where the higher classes were called Bozorgan.
Some of the dominant Parthian clans from Seven Parthian clans remained important, although many new families had risen after
dissolution of Parthian dynasty. Nevertheless the empire was dominated by Persian noble families.
In general Bozorgan from Persian nobility had all the high-ranking positions which included governors of border provinces (Marzban مرزبان), a majority of these positions were patrimonial and for generations it belonged to a specific family. Those Marzbans of greatest seniority permitted a silver throne while Marzbans of most strategic border provinces like Caucasus provine were allowed a golden throne.
Relations with China
Sassanids like Parthians had an active relation with Chinese Emperors and sent many embassies to China. On different occasions Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court. Wealth brought from Silk road made both empires very protective of the road and tied them more closely to each other. They co-operated on guarding the road in Central Asia region and built many outposts in the border areas to keep the caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits. Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, Pirooz, son of Yazdegerd III along with few Persian nobilities escaped and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court.
Expansion to India
- Main article: Indo-Sassanian
After The Sassanids came to power in Persia in 226. The second emperor, Shapur I (240-270), extended his authority eastwards into what is today Pakistan and northwestern India and the previously autonomous Kushans were obliged to accept his suzerainty.
Successive Sassanid emperors were either tolerant of other religions or pursued policies of persecution, particularly against Christians, but in India the Kushans were generally tolerant of indigenous beliefs. Thanks to traded goods such as silverware and textiles depicting the Sassanid emperors engaged in hunting or administering justice, their imperial example became well known in Kushan India and, owing to the political relationship, it was wise for Kushan art to be seen to be drawing inspiration from Persia, imitation being one of the best forms of flattery. This adoption of Persian forms, rather than Indian, also helped the Kushans to maintain their aloofness from their subjects.
Although the Kushan empire declined at the end of the 3rd century, leading to the rise to power of an indigenous Indian dynasty, the Guptas, in the 4th century, it is clear that Sassanid influence remained relevant in the north-west of India.
Numerous cultural exchanges took place between Persia (Iran) and India in this period .Chess was imported from India to Persia (Iran) where its terminology was translated into Persian, and its name changed to chatrang (See history of chess). In exchange, Persians introduced their own special game Backgammon to India.
Under Khosrau I's auspices, many books were brought from India and translated into Pahlavi. Some of these later found their way into the literature of the Islamic world. His famous minister Burzoe translated indian Panchatantra from Sanscrit into middle persian language of Pahlavi and named it Kelileh va Demneh which later on from its Persian version it transmitted to Arabia and Europe.
Important Persian figures in Sassanid era
- Mani the prophet : Founder of Manichaeism.
- Mazdak : Proto-socialist philosopher and founder of Mazdakism.
- Bozorgmehr : The famous physician and minister of Khosrau I.
- Purandokht (Boran) : Famous Sassanid queen on the throne.
- Barbod the Great : The famous court musician of the king Khosrau II who created the first ever musical system in the Middle East, known as the Royal Khosravani, dedicated to king himself.
- Nakisa : The famous court musician who collaborated with Barbod on his famous septet piece the Royal Khosravani.
- Rostam Farrokhzād : The last great general of Sassanids; while unsuccessful at repelling the Arab Muslim invaders, he is considered a hero in Iranian folklore and history
Art and science
- See also: Sassanid Music
- See also: Science and medical academy of Gundishapur
- See also: Pahlavi literature
- See also: Sassanid architecture
- See also: Sassanid castles
In many ways the Sassanian period (224-633) witnessed the highest achievement of Persian civilization, and constituted the last great Persian Empire before the Muslim conquest. In fact much of what later became known as Muslim culture, architecture, writing and other skills, were taken mainly from the Persians into the broad Muslim world.
The Sassanian Dynasty, like the Achaemenian, originated in the province of Persis (Fars). They saw themselves as successors to the Achaemenians, after the Hellenistic and Parthian interlude, and perceived it as their role to restore the greatness of Persia.
At its peak, the Sassanian Empire stretched from Syria to north-west India; but its influence was felt far beyond these political boundaries. Sassanian motifs found their way into the art of central Asia and China, the Byzantine Empire, and even Merovingian France.
In reviving, the glories of the Achaemenian past, the Sassanians were no mere imitators. The art of this period reveals an astonishing virility. In certain respects it anticipates features later developed during the Islamic period. The conquest of Persia by Alexander the Macedonian warlord had inaugurated the spread of Hellenistic art into Western Asia; but if the East accepted the outward form of this art, it never really assimilated its spirit. Already in the Parthian period Hellenistic art was being interpreted freely by the peoples of the Near East and throughout the Sassanian period there was a continuing process of reaction against it. Sassanian art revived forms and traditions native to Persia; and in the Islamic period these reached the shores of the Mediterranean.
The splendour in which the Sassanian monarchs lived is well illustrated by their surviving palaces, such as those at Firouzabad and Bishapur in Fars, and the capital city of Ctesiphon in Khvarvaran province, nowadays Iraq. In addition to local traditions, Parthian architecture must have been responsible for a great many of the Sassanian architectural characteristics. All are characterised by the barrel-vaulted iwans introduced in the Parthian period, but now they reached massive proportions, particularly at Ctesiphon. The arch of the great vaulted hall at Ctesiphon attributed to the reign of Shapur I (241-272) has a span of more than 80 ft, and reaches a height of 118 ft. from the ground. This magnificent structure fascinated architects in the centuries that followed and has always been considered as one of the most important pieces of Persian architecture. Many of the palaces contain an inner audience hall which consists, as at Firuzabad, of a chamber surmounted by a dome. The Persians solved the problem of constructing a circular dome on a square building by the squinch. This is an arch built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it is simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firouzabad is the earliest surviving example of the use of the squinch and so there is good reason for regarding Persia as its place of invention.
The unique characteristic of Sassanian architecture, was its distinctive use of space. The Sassanian architect conceived his building in terms of masses and surfaces; hence the use of massive walls of brick decorated with molded or carved stucco. Stucco wall decorations appear at Bishapur, but better examples are preserved from Chal Tarkhan near Ray (late Sassanian or early Islamic in date), and from Ctesiphon and Kish in Mesopotamia. The panels show animal figures set in roundels, human busts, and geometric and floral motifs.
At Bishapur some of the floors were decorated with mosaics showing scenes of merrymaking as at a banquet; the Roman influence here is clear, and the mosaics may have been laid by Roman prisoners. Buildings were also decorated with wall paintings; particularly fine examples have been found at Kuh-i Khwaja in Sistan.
Studies on Sassanid remains show that there has been over 100 types of crown being worn by Sassanid kings. The various Sassanid crowns demonstrate the cultural, economic, social, and historical situation in each period. The crowns also show the character traits of each king in this era.
There are different symbols and signs on the crowns of Sassanid kings including the moon, stars, eagle, and palm that show their religious faith and beliefs.
Sassanid army
- Main article: Sassanid Army
The backbone of Persian army (Spah) in the Sassanid era was their heavy armoured cavalry. The Clibinarii cavalry of Shapur II is described by Greek historian Ammianus Marcellinus as follows:
All the companies were clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff-joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skilfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire body was covered with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tip of their nose they were able to get a little breath. Of these some who were armed with pikes, stood so motionless that you would have thought them held fast by clamps of bronze.
Some of the Sassanid army units and their weaponry:
- Azadan nobility - (Savaran elite cavalry, the Persian knightly caste)
- War elephants
- Light cavalry (Nomad archers)
- Clibinarii cavalry (Heavy cavalry armed with maces and swords)
- Cataphract cavalry (Heavy cavalry armed with lances)
- Daylami and Soghdiana (Sughdian) heavy infantry
- Paygan (Medium infantry armed with spears and large shields)
- Kamandaran (Elite foot archers)
Sassanid Empire chronology
| Sassanid rulers | |
|---|---|
| Ruler | Year |
| Ardashir I | 224 to 241 |
| Shapur I | 241 to 272 |
| Hormizd I | 272 to 273 |
| Bahram I | 273 to 276 |
| Bahram II | 276 to 293 |
| Bahram III | 293 |
| Narseh | 293 to 302 |
| Hormizd II | 302 to 310 |
| Shapur II | 310 to 379 |
| Ardashir II | 379 to 383 |
| Shapur III | 383 to 388 |
| Bahram IV | 388 to 399 |
| Yazdegerd I | 399 to 420 |
| Bahram V | 420 to 438 |
| Yazdegerd II | 438 to 457 |
| Hormizd III | 457 to 459 |
| Peroz I | 457 to 484 |
| Balash | 484 to 488 |
| Kavadh I | 488 to 531 |
| Djamasp | 496 to 498 |
| Khosrau I | 531 to 579 |
| Hormizd IV | 579 to 590 |
| Khosrau II | 590 to 628 |
| Bahram VI | 590 to 591 |
| Bistam | 591 to 592 |
| Hormizd V | 593 |
| Kavadh II | 628 |
| Ardashir III | 628 to 630 |
| Peroz II | 629 |
| Shahrbaraz | 630 |
| Purandokht | 630 to 631 |
| Hormizd VI | 631 to 632 |
| Yazdgird III | 632 to 651 |
226-241: Reign of Ardashir I
- 224-226: Overthrow of Parthian Empire.
- 229-232: War with Rome
- Zoroastrianism is revived as official religion.
- The collection of texts known as the Zend Avesta is assembled.
241-271: Reign of Shapur I
- 241-244: First war with Rome.
- 258-260: Second war with Rome. Capture of Roman emperor Valerian.
- 215-271: Mani, founder of Manicheanism.
271-301: A period of dynastic struggles
309-379: Reign of Shapur II "the Great"
- 337-350: First war with Rome with a relatively not much of success.
- 358-363: Second war with Rome. Great victories , extending eastern and western borders of empire.
399-420: Reign of Yazdegerd I "the Sinner"
- 409: Christian are permitted to publicly worship and to build churches.
- 416-420: Persecution of Christians as Yazdegerd revokes his earlier order.
420-440: Reign of Bahram V.
- 420-422: War with Rome.
- 424: Council of Dad-Ishu declares the Eastern Church independent of Constantinople.
483: Edict of Toleration granted to Christians
491: Armenian Church repudiates the Council of Chalcedon.
- Nestorian Christianity becomes dominant Christian sect in Sassanid Empire
531-579: Reign of Khosrau I, "with the immortal soul" (Anushirvan)
533: "Treaty of Endless Peace" with Rome.
540-562: War with Rome.
590-628: Reign of Khosrau II
603-628: War with Rome. With conquests in Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Anatolia, Persia nearly restored to boundaries of Achaemenid dynasty, before being beaten back by Romans.
610: Arabs defeat a Sassanid army at Dhu-Qar.
626: Unsuccessful siege of Constantinople by Avars and Persians.
627: Roman Emperor Heraclius invades Assyria and Mesopotamia. Definitive defeat of Persian forces at the battle of Nineveh by the joint Byzantine force.
628-632: Chaotic period of multiple rulers.
632-642: Reign of Yazdgird III
636: Decisive Sassanid defeat at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah during the Islamic conquest of Iran.
642: Final victory of Arabs when Persian army destroyed at Nahavand (Nehavand).
651: Last Sassānid ruler Yazdgird III murdered at Merv, present-day Turkmenistan, ending the dynasty. His son Pirooz and many others went into exile in China.
In modern media
The Sassanid Empire is one of a number of factions in the 2005 PC game Rome Total War: Barbarian invasion.
References
- Dr. Abd al-Husayn Zarrin’kub "Ruzgaran : tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi" Sukhan, 1999. ISBN 964-6961-11-8
- Dr. David Nicolle "Sassanian Armies : the Iranian empire early 3rd to mid-7th centuries AD" Montvert, 1996. ISBN 1-874101-08-6
- Dr. Ali Akbar Sarfaraz, Dr. Bahman Firuzmandi "Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani" Marlik, 1996. ISBN 964-90495-1-7
- The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies at SOAS (CASI at SOAS)
- Iran Chamber Society (History of Iran)
See also
- Pirooz (son of Yazdgird III who went into exile in China)
- Sasanian Family Tree (Family Tree of Sasanian Kings)
- List of kings of Persia
- Music of Sassanian
- Academy of Gundishapur
- Pahlavi literature
- Sassanid Army
- Zoroastrian calendar
- Firouzabad
- Derbent (The northernmost Sassanid castle located in Russia)
- Takht-i-Suleiman (A good showcase of Sassanid architecture and city developing)
- Palace of Ardashir
- Ghal'eh Dokhtar (Ardashir I's first base)
- Shahryar (The fictional Sassanid king from 1001 Nights)
External links
- The Art of Sassanians
- Sasanian art, culture and history
- Sassanid crowns
- Sassanid coins
- Sassanid textile
- Islamic Metalwork The continuation of Sassanid Art