Hunting

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This article is about the hunting of prey by human society. For other uses of the word "hunting", see Hunting (disambiguation). "Hunter" and "huntress" redirect here; for other uses of these words, see Hunter (disambiguation) and Huntress (disambiguation).

Hunting is most commonly applied to the practice of pursuing animals to capture or kill them for food, sport, or trade in their products. Hunting should be distinguished from poaching which is the killing, trapping or capture of game animals contrary to law. Animals so hunted are referred to as game animals. By definition, hunting excludes the killing of individual animals that have become dangerous to humans and the killing of vermin as a means of pest control. Although hunting also technically excludes wildlife management to maintain a population of animals within an environment's carrying capacity, regulatory and licensing bodies may restrict the bag limit such that only animals in excess of the environment's carrying capacity may be harvested.

History

Hunters in Kenya use much the same techniques that have been used for thousands of years. Hunting is now banned in Kenya.

Old roots

In ancient societies, before the widespread domestication of animals, hunting was generally vital for survival as part of the hunter-gatherer way of life, and as a result of thousands of years of evolution, the pursuit of a target is ingrained within the human psyche. For most humans before the development of agriculture, hunting would have provided an important source of protein to augment the foraged plants and vegetables that made up the majority of their diet. In addition, animal hides were used for clothing and shelters. The earliest hunting weapons would have included rocks, the Atlatl and bow and arrows.

Even when animal domestication became relatively widespread, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the food supply available to a population. In addition, animal parts such as hides and horns were utilized in clothing and tools, and not all of these products could be provided from the domestication of animals. The importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the Greek Artemis alias the Roman Diana (both lunar goddesses, among the twelve major divinities with an equivalent in nearly every ancient Mediterranean culture) or Cernunnos, the Horned God. The mythological association of a prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions, often a 'reserve' surrounding its temple(s).

Hunter-gathering cultures existed along-side agrarian societies with whom they traded. This did not always result in a cultural transition from hunting-gathering to agrarian domestication. Also, in chilly climates, the hides or furs of animals would be used as clothing (see trapping). The Inuit peoples in the Arctic could produce complicated parkas consisting of up to 60 stitched pieces capable of with-standing sub-zero temperatures. From the skins of sea mammals they produced, and still produce, water-proof kayaks, clothing, gloves and footwear.

With domestication of the dog, birds of prey and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry and ferreting. These are all associated with medieval hunting; in time various dog breeds were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter.

As hunting moved from a strictly necessary activity for survival to one of many staples of society, two trends emerged. One was that of the specialist hunter - a position previously held by just about every able-bodied male (usually) in the society. As domesticated farming and herding took hold, hunting became one of many trades to be pursued by those with the necessary training and equipment.

The other trend was the emergence of hunting as a sport. As game became more of a luxury than a dietary necessity, the pursuit of it could equally well be considered a luxury pursuit. Still dangerous hunting, as for lions or wild boars, usually on horseback (or from a chariot, as in Pharaonic Egypt and Mesopotamia) also had a similar function as tournaments and various manly sports: an honourable, often somewhat competetive passtime helping the aristocracy in peace time to practice in the skills of warfare.

Nobleman in Hunting Costume, preceded by his Servant, trying to find the Scent of a Stag. From a Miniature in the Book of Gaston Phoebus ("Des Deduitz de la Chasse des Bestes Sauvaiges"). Manuscript of the Fourteenth Century (National Library of Paris).

Ladies Hunting. Costumes of the fifteenth century. From a miniature in a ms. copy of Ovid's Epistles. No 7231 bis. Bibl. nat^le de Paris.

In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper-class (aristocracy and higher clergy) obtained as proud privilege the sole rights to hunt (and sometimes fish) in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was certainly used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen; but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer".

Modern Hunting for Sport

In time, this aristocratic type of hunting lost its roots as a source of food and supplies, while retaining its prestigious nature as a sport, eagerly adopted by the rising bourgeoisie.

Hunting in North America in the 1800s was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies. The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists, but is frowned upon by some when it involves rare or endangered species of animal. Other people also object to trophy hunting in general because it is seen as a senseless act of killing another living thing for recreation, rather than food.

Advocates of trophy hunting disagree. They state that the vast majority of the edible portions of the animal are consumed by the hunters themselves or given to local inhabitants. This along with fees paid to hunt contribute to the local economy and provide value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops [1]. In Tanzania it is estimated that safari hunter spends 50-100 times that of the average eco-tourist and at a lower environmental impact. The average photo tourist demands luxury accommodations and at a higher number of visitors to make the endeavor financially viable. In contrast the average safari hunter travels on foot, staying in tented camps and in vastly smaller numbers. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the average eco-tourist. Having these hunters there allows for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities [2].

In the 1800s southern and central European hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, to be displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was often wasted. In contrast, in relatively scarcely populated northern Europe, hunting has remained the tradition of the common people, and still serves a purpose as a means of acquiring meat, although the standard of living does not require it; Eating game is generally considered a healthier and more ethical alternative to the exploitation of farmed animals. In the Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was, and still is frowned upon, but an impressive trophy is considered a bonus. This is perhaps the most common practice of modern hunters worldwide.

Specific hunting traditions

Shikar (India)

During feudal and colonial epoch on the Indian continent, hunting was a true 'kingly sport' in the numerous princely states, as many (maha)rajas etc. maintained a whole corps, attached to their court, of shikaris, i.e. native professional hunterssince these had to be armed (not unlike he common lancer units; both could be mounted), they might also double as a supplementary police corps or military contingent. Often these were recruited from the normally low-ranking local pre-Aryan tribes (e.g. Bhils in Rajasthan's premier kingdom Mewar), because of their traditional knowledge of environment, techniques etc., but thus could be closer then most subjects to the ruler, who would often hunt big game (preferably the emperor of Asians wildlife, the (Bengal) tiger) in majestic style: on the back of an elephant, often commandeering extra helpers as drivers to scare the game out of the grass or jungle till it came within gun reach. As hunting was an important princely pass-time, worthy hunting lodges were constructed (not unlike feudal Europe)

After European guests of these princes had enjoyed the honour of talking part in these elephant hunts, some colonial Sahibs started organizing their own, and tiger numbers especially dwindled alarmingly. Fortunately, the independent republics (and neighbouring Himalayan monarchies, as Nepal) became wise enough to curb such massively disturbing 'expeditions', for the threat of poching may still mean the unnecessary end of more species and habitats then have already been lost forever.

Safari

A safari (from Swahili word meaning a long journey) is an overland journey (especially in Africa).

Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by US author Ernest Hemingway and president Theodore Roosevelt. It is a several days or even weeks-lasting journey and camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game. Nowadays, it's often used to describe tours through African national parks to watch or hunt wildlife.

Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by professional local guide, skinners and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation and outfitting is done by the hunter himself. Among trophy hunters, those who outfitted the safaris themselves would receive the greatest admiration.

On the rise, even before integral ecotourism was, is the animal-friendly version known as photo-safari, where the only shots aimed at wildlife come from camera lenses. The synonym Bloodless hunt for hunting with the use of film and a still photo camera was first used by the Polish photographer Włodzimierz Puchalski

United Kingdom

The practice of British fox hunting is a prime example of sport hunting; the fox is not eaten, and the skin is rarely preserved afterwards. Fox hunting originally developed as a means of vermin control to protect livestock. In Victorian times it also became a popular sport of the upper classes. It now attracts followers from all walks of life. Mounted followers join in on horseback and foot-followers walk or cycle, others follow by car, stopping to view the hunt from suitable vantage points. Fox hunting attract strong feelings. Some animal rights supporters feel it causes suffering to the fox and is both cruel and unnecessary, but no cruelty evidence was forthcoming when the legislation was drawn up. Most members of the farming and rural communities in which it takes place feel it is an integral and useful part of rural life, providing an important contribution to prevent vermin from killing farm animals especially at lambing time and providing an important contribution to social life for local people.

In 2002 the Scottish Parliament passed an act banning fox hunting and other forms of hunting with hounds. On September 15th 2004 the British Parliament followed Scotland's lead and passed a similar ban for England and Wales under the Hunting Act 2004, which took effect from February 18, 2005. The British Government forced the ban into law using the Parliament Act. Some hunting activists have declared their intention to break the law and continue hunting with hounds, and others are 'hunting within the law' and thereby showing the law to be flawed, illogical and unenforcable.

Hunting in the United States

In the United States, hunting is a sport not associated with any particular class or culture. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over 13 million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport. Modern North American hunting has been strongly influenced by organizations such as the Boone and Crocket Club, founded in 1887 to discourage commercial hunting, promote conservation and the "fair chase" ethic of hunting "individual animals in a manner that conserves, protects, and perpetuates the hunted population."

In the United States, hunters are encouraged to take a hunters safety course. There are many good courses taught by hunters and they teach the responsibilities of a good sportsman. On television there is a show on OLN called Hunters Handbook that shows hunting safety and new hunting products.

Modern hunters see themselves as conservationists. Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to State agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Proceeds from the Federal Duck Stamp, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters, have purchased more than 5 million acres (20,000 km²) of habitat for the refuge system lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species, and are often open to hunting. The $200 million is the federal portion only and does not include monies collected by the states for hunting licenses.

Local hunting clubs and national conservation organizations protect the future of wildlife by setting aside millions of acres of habitat and speaking up for conservation in Washington and State capitals [3]. Two such private organizations are Ducks Unlimited [4] and Delta Waterfowl [5].

Hunting of mammals such as deer, elk and small game is regulated by the states. Hunting of migratory waterfowl (ducks, geese, and others) is regulated by the Federal government under treaties with Canada and Mexico since the birds do not recognize international political boundaries. The states usually adminster the federally-set regulations.

One task of Federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, included species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans.

Hunting can be an important tool for wildlife management. Hunting gives resource managers a valuable tool to control populations of some species that might otherwise exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other wildlife species, and in some instances, that of human health and safety [6]. Hunting reduces the annual crop of new animals and birds to allow the remaining animals sufficient feed and shelter to survive.

An example of using hunters in wildlife management can be found in the "Snow, Blue and Ross' Goose Conservation Order 2005." [7] The Conservation Order allows hunters, after all other waterfowl seasons are closed, to shoot an unlimited number of these species of geese. The reason for the Conservation Order is that these species have grown so numerous that they are destroying the Arctic environment which many species of animals use as breeding grounds.

Many Native American hunters claim subsistence hunting rights as a traditional part of their culture. In certain cases (such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act), Federal law provides protection for Native Americans. This is particularly true in Alaska, where people still feed on sea and land mammals as well as fish and birds. It is common for rural Alaska Native communities to obtain 50-90% of their daily protein from hunting.

Varmint hunting is the killing of animals seen as pests and animals that are not normally considered as game species. While not an efficient form of pest control (poisoning and trapping are much more effective), it does provide recreation and is currently the fastest growing area of hunting. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Animals may be utilized for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are "varmints" depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves.

Animal management authorities sometimes rely on hunting to control certain animal populations. These hunts are sometimes carried out by professional hunters although other hunts include amateurs. Overpopulations of deer in urban parks and bears which have attacked humans might be hunted by animal management authorities.

Modern hunting is done with a plethora of weapons. The three most common being: guns, bows, and muzzleloaders. Some prefer bowhunting and bowfishing, as they may consider such hunting methods more challenging.

Hunting Methods

Subsistence and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, weapons and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique, and some are used primarily in poaching and wildlife management, explicitly forbidden to sport hunters.

• Baiting is the use of decoys, lures, scent or food to attract animals
• Blind or Stand hunting is waiting for animals from a concealed or elevated position
• Calling is the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals
• Camouflage is the use of visual concealment (or scent) to blend with the environment
• Dogs may be used to help flush, herd, drive, track, point at, pursue or retrieve prey
• Driving is the herding of animals in a particular direction, as over a cliff
• Flushing is the practice of scaring animals from concealed areas
• Glassing is the use of optics (such as binoculars) to more easily locate animals
• Lighting is the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing
• Scouting includes a variety of tasks and techniques for finding animals to hunt
• Stalking is the practice of walking quietly, often in pursuit of an identified animal
• Still Hunting is the practice of walking quietly in search of animals
• Tracking is the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals
• Trapping is the use of devices (snares, pits, deadfalls) to capture or kill an animal

Depiction of hunt in Popular Culture

While there are numerous hunting shows, television programs, magazines and merchandise, some popular entertainment also condemns sport hunting.

This is most obvious in animation which often depicts hunting from the hunted animal's point of view and furthermore has the audience's sympathy as the animal either usually escapes or successfully defends itself. Hence, the hunter is often presented as the antagonist. This can range from the humorous such as Bugs Bunny fighting off Elmer Fudd to the dramatic (and absurdly inaccurate) as in Bambi. In contrast, filmed depictions of hunting by aboriginal cultures like Native American ones are treated with much more sympathy with the implied idea that they are hunting for what they need to survive and no more. (This "implied idea" actually continues to be the case in many Alaskan Bush communities today.)[8] Varmint hunting of prairie dogs is depicted in John Ross' novel "Unintended Consequences". A favorable depiction of hunting is found in L.Neil Smith's science fiction novel 'Pallas'.

See also

• Hunting horn in the U.S.

External links

• Ethics of Hunting - a philosophy thesis on the ethical arguments for and against hunting, including a section focusing on Christian ethics.
• Hunting Safety
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service website
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service statistics
• Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission as an example of state agencies
• Michigan based grassroots hunting, fishing and habitat forum
• Boone and Crockett Club "Fair Chase" Statement
• Safari Club International
• Bushcraft related hunting article