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Hypnosis is popularly understood to be a psychological condition in which an individual may be induced to exhibit apparent changes in behaviour or thought patterns - in particular an increase in suggestibility and subjective feelings of relaxation. The procedure by which this is achieved is called hypnotism.

Intense debate surrounds the topic of hypnosis. Many scientists dispute its very existence, while many therapists insist upon its value. One of the problems that creates controversy is the wide variety of theories of hypnosis. The definitions of hypnosis are as varied as the definers. Dr. William S. Kroger states:

"Like the nature of human behavior, there will be different theories about hypnosis since all hypnotic phenomena have their counterpart in the various aspects of human behavior." (1977)

The applications of hypnosis vary widely. Currently, two distinct applications of hypnosis include its use in entertainment and in health applications. The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subjects eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is asleep or, popularly termed, in trance. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to engage in behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.

On the other hand, hypnosis applications in the medical and health-related fields are often experienced very differently. Clinical hypnosis is used in attempts to increase the ability to recall memories, assist with dieting, smoking cessation, pain reduction or elimination, eliminating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) as well as resolving mental disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety and depression.

Contents 1 Definitions 1.1 American Psychological Association 1.2 Dave Elman 1.3 Physiological: Alpha and Theta State-based Definitions 1.4 Michael Yapko 2 History 3 Theories 3.1 Hypnosis as a state of hysteria 3.2 Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep 3.3 Dissociation and neodissociation theories 3.4 Altered state of consciousness theory 3.5 State theory 3.6 Non-state theory 3.7 Role-playing theory 3.8 Hypersuggestibility theory 3.9 Informational theory 3.10 Hypnotism as a social construct 4 Research on Hypnosis 5 Hypnosis Methodologies and Effects 5.1 General methods 5.2 General effects 5.2.1 Focused attention 5.2.2 Suggestibility 5.2.3 Judgment 5.2.4 Abreaction 6 Hypnosis Applications 6.1 Hypnotherapy 6.2 Clinical Hypnosis 6.3 Self-hypnosis 6.4 Dental Application 6.5 Obstetric Application (Painless Childbirth) 6.6 Forensic Application 6.7 Mass Application 6.8 Stage Application 6.9 Indirect Application 6.10 Objective Signs of the Hypnotic State: Breuer's Absent Pupillary Reflex Sign 7 Professional associations and governmental authorities 7.1 Professional associations 7.2 Governmental authorities 7.3 Historical sites 8 Popular culture 8.1 Fictional treatments 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Footnotes 10.2 Books 10.3 External links

Definitions

The following definitions are based on the theories presented later in this article.

American Psychological Association

In 1993, the American Psychological Association defined hypnosis as "a procedure during which a health professional or researcher suggests that a client, patient, or experimental participant experience changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behavior."^[1]

This definition was revised and expanded March 2005. It begins, "Hypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented." (see Complete definition and description.)

Dave Elman

Dave Elman defines hypnosis as "a state of mind in which the critical faculty of the human mind is bypassed, and selective thinking established." The critical faculty of your mind is that part which passes judgment. It distinguishes between concepts of hot and cold, sweet and sour, large and small, dark and light. If we can bypass this critical faculty in such a way that you no longer distinguish between hot and cold, sweet and sour, we can substitute selective thinking for conventional judgment making. ^[2]

Physiological: Alpha and Theta State-based Definitions

Through data collected via electroencephalography (EEGs), four major brain-wave patterns—frequency of electrical impulses firing from the brain—have been identified. The Beta state (alert/working) is defined as 14-32 cycles per second (CPS), the Alpha state (relaxed/reflecting) falls in the 7-14 CPS range, the Theta state (drowsy) from 4-7 CPS, and Delta state (sleeping/dreaming/deep sleep) is defined as approximately 3-5 CPS.

One physiological definition of hypnosis states that the brainwave level necessary to work on issues such as stopping smoking, weight management, reduction of phobias, sports improvement, etc., is the alpha state. The alpha state is commonly associated with closing one's eyes, relaxation, and daydreaming.

Another physiological definition states that the theta state is required for therapeutic change. The theta state is associated with hypnosis for surgery, hypnoanesthesia and hypnoanalgesia, which occur more readily in the theta and delta states. It should be noted that hypnoanalgesia of the skin is a common test for somnambulism. Arm and body catalepsy are one of a few tests done to determine readiness for these surgical applications.

However, it is important to reflect upon the fact that both arm and body catalepsy can be induced in normal non-hypnotised subjects. Indeed, arm catalepsy is a standard stage-hypnotists test of susceptibility. Moreover, normal, non-hypnotised subjects can be found in any of these states of cortical arousal without also displaying any of the behaviour, traits or the enhanced suggestibility associated with being hypnotised.

Michael Yapko

Michael Yapko defines hypnosis: "...hypnosis is a process of influential communication in which the clinician elicits and guides the inner associations of the client in order to establish or strengthen therapeutic associations in the context of a collaborative and mutually responsive goal-oriented relationship. (Yapko, M.. Hypnosis and the Treatement of Depressions. Brunner/Mazel Inc., New York, New York, ISBN: 0-87630-682-2, p. 37)

History

For the history on this topic, please see History of hypnosis

Theories

The exact psychological state of a subject in hypnosis is unclear, and its very existence and effects are strongly debated. The following are some of the more popular theories on the phenomena of hypnosis:

Hypnosis as a state of hysteria

Charcot postulated that hypnosis was a symptom of hysteria and that only those people experiencing hysteria were believed to be hypnotizable.^[3] Although those exhibiting hysteria seem to be more suggestible, normal individuals are, indeed, hypnotizable which calls this theory into question.

Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep

Ivan Pavlov believed that hypnosis was a "partial sleep". He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis didn't significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower brain stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.^[4]

Although some modern researchers still subscribe to this theory, Kroger states "during deep sleep, conditioned reflexes and physiological responses to a repeatedly given stimulus cannot be established, whereas in hypnosis the learning of conditioned reflexes is enhanced over and above that of the nonhypnotic state."

In hypnosis, the subject typically appears to be asleep because of eye closure that is typically part of the induction procedure, but there is quite a bit of literature on blood pressure, reflexes, physiochemical and EEG studies which indicates that hypnosis more closely resembles complete wakefulness.^[5]

Dissociation and neodissociation theories

This theory of hypnosis, postulated by Pierre Janet, states that while in hypnosis, areas of an individual's behavioral control is split off from ordinary awareness. In this case, hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind and the individual will respond with autonomic, reflexual behavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as "dissociation of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place."^[6]

Ernest Hilgard took this theory and went further with a neodissociation theory. This theory postulates that although there exists a normal ego function that controls socially acceptable behaviors, there are other processes that occur outside of these controls, and could also function simultaneously with the normal controls.

Altered state of consciousness theory

Hypnosis is commonly viewed by its proponents and practitioners as a natural, altered state of consciousness, where the conscious (analytical) mind is bypassed, and the subconscious (creative) mind is accessed. This allows the subject to use the power of visualization and suggestion, given by oneself or another, to change and improve behavior patterns.

Hypnosis, then, is just a state of mental and physical relaxation, along with a more focused sense of concentration. Hypnosis is not sleep (as is often popularly assumed), and most people find that they are more aware of smells, sounds, and feelings than usual. Some believe that this is a form of trance state, similar to somnambulism, while others believe that hypnosis functions predominantly by focusing and diverting attention. This concentrated awareness is what allows the hypnotherapist to plant positive suggestions and images in the mind of the client to bring about lasting changes.

State theory

Currently a more popular theory, it proposes that hypnosis is a state or, more commonly, a "trance". Hilgard relates this state as an "ability component" or a "trait of hypnotic responsiveness".^[7]

Non-state theory

Barber theorizes that hypnosis is not a state or a trance and is not produced as the the result of suggestions. He suggests that hypnosis is based on a number of overlapping variables, but, primarily, that interpersonal relationships allows the operator to restructure perceptions and conceptions of the subject. He theorizes that this occurs because the subject is relatively inattentive to the environment and, because of this misdirection of attention, the subject is willing to think as the hypnotist wants them to think.^[8]

Role-playing theory

This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and allowing the hypnotist to create a reality for them. This relationship depends on how much rapport has been established between the hypnotist and the subject (see Hawthorne effect, Pygmalion effect, and the Placebo effect).

Hypersuggestibility theory

Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject's attention is narrowed by certain techniques used by the hypnotist. As attention is narrowed, the hypnotist's words eventually take over the inner voice of the subject. From this theory comes the implication that only gullible or weak-minded people are suggestable. Some people, however, find the narrowing of attention to be desirable. Milton Erickson was said to have told his subjects, "... and my voice will go with you," meaning that Erickson's voice would be a comforting presence in the face of adversity and trouble.

Informational theory

This theory applies the concept of the brain-as-computer model. In electronic systems, a system adjusts its feedback networks to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for optimum functioning, called a "steady state". Increasing the receptability of a receptor enables messages to be more clearly received from a transmitter primarily by trying to reduce the interference (noise) as much as possible. Thus, the object of the hypnotist is to use techniques to reduce the interference and increase the receptability of specific messages (suggestions).

Hypnotism as a social construct

Generally, under hypnosis people become more receptive to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave. Some psychologists (Sarbin, Spanos...) have suggested that hypnosis is a social construct, so well-known that strong social expectations are played out by subjects, who believe they are in a state of hypnosis, behaving in a way that they imagine a hypnotized person would behave. Much experimental work has demonstrated that the experiences of hypnotised subjects can be dramatically shaped by expectations and social nuances. This view is often misunderstood: it does not discount the claim that hypnotised individuals are truly experiencing suggested effects, just that the mechanim by which this has taken place has in part been socially constructed.

Research on Hypnosis

Much research has been conducted into the nature and effects of hypnosis and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (if somewhat peripheral) tool in contemporary Psychological research. A number of different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: that which examines the 'state' of hypnosis itself, that which examines the effects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and that which uses hypnotic suggestion as a tool to research other areas of psychological functioning.

With the advent of recent brain imaging techniques (fMRI, although also EEG and PET) there has been a resurgence of interest in the relationship between hypnosis and brain function. Any human experience is reflected in some way in the brain - seeing colours or motion is underscored by activity in the visual cortex, feeling fear is mediated by activity in the amygdala - and so hypnosis and suggestion are expected to have observable effects upon brain function. An important issue for researchers conducting brain imaging is to separate the effects of hypnosis and suggestion - knowing that a suggestion given during hypnosis affects brain area X does not just tell us about hypnosis, it tells us about the effects of the suggestion too. To account for this experiments need to include a non-hypnotic-response-to-suggestion condition - only this way can the specific effects of hypnosis be examined.

A number of brain-imaging studies have been conducted which have used hypnosis, a selection are given below:

For example, one controlled scientific experiment postulates that hypnosis may change conscious experience in a way not possible when people are not "hypnotized", at least in "highly hypnotizable" people. In this experiment, color perception was changed by hypnosis in "highly hypnotizable" people as determined by positron emission tomography (PET) scans (Kosslyn et al., 2000). (This research does not compare the effects of hypnosis on less hypnotizable people and could therefore show little causal effect due to the lack of a control group.)

Another research example, employing event-related fMRI and EEG coherence measures, compared certain specific neural activity "during Stroop task performance between participants of low and high hypnotic susceptibility, at baseline and after hypnotic induction". According to its authors, "the fMRI data revealed that conflict-related ACC activity interacted with hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility, in that highly susceptible participants displayed increased conflict-related neural activity in the hypnosis condition compared to baseline, as well as with respect to subjects with low susceptibility." (Egner et al., 2005). Skeptics dispute the significance of such findings, claiming that such changes cannot be shown to be particular to the hypnotised state, and that any other action such as daydreaming is also likely to alter brain activity in some manner. The subject is still a matter of current research and scientific debate.

There is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis research (the majority of which does not use brain imaging techniques!) which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate. Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective tool for pain relief, and when combined adjunctively with other therapeutic techniques it has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it is effective for weight loss, IBS, anxiety conditions and many more - the data for smoking cessation are more dubious).

Hypnosis Methodologies and Effects

General methods

The act of inducing a hypnotic state is referred to as an induction procedure. There is no current consensus on what the requirements are for an induction procedure to be effective; while some practitioners use simple calming verbal techniques, others use complex triggers, including mechanical devices (see Michael Robinson's Self-Hypnosis Learning or Licensed Online Counseling, page 45).

Many experienced hypnotists claim that they can hypnotize almost anyone. They also claim it is a myth that people with strong will power cannot be hypnotized, as they claim these generally make the best participants. This is based on the idea that those who are most intelligent are also the most creative and as such they will make strong associations with the structure of language used by the hypnotist and by the visual or auditory representations inside of their mind. On the other hand, there is a common claim that no one can really be hypnotized against his or her will (Liébault, Le sommeil provoqué (Paris, 1889)). The counter-claim given by many hypnotists is that while you cannot make someone do anything against their will, you can change what it is that they wish to do.

Many religious and cultural rituals contain many similarities with techniques used for hypnotic induction and induce similar states in their participants.

General effects

Focused attention

This school of thought holds that hypnosis as a state is very similar to other states of extreme concentration, where a person becomes oblivious to his or her surroundings while lost in thought. Often suggested as an example is when a driver suddenly finds himself much further down the road without any memory of driving the intervening distance, or when a person is watching television and focuses so intently on the program that he or she ceases to be aware of the sides of the screen.

The act of hypnotizing, is, in effect, the act of manually inducing a similar state (See, for example, general information on the ASCH website).

Suggestibility

Main article: Suggestibility

Psychologists have produced controversial studies that seem to show a strong correlation between the ease of putting someone in a state of hypnosis and their level of suggestibility (see Stanford scales).

Hypnosis has further been described as "The suspension of the critical factor" which expands on the idea of "increased suggestibility". A person who claims to be hypnotized may accept statements as true that he or she would normally reject.

For example, when told "you have forgotten your name," the subject in a normal state would react with disbelief, but under hypnosis people have claimed that they have, indeed, forgotten their own names.

It often appears as if the hypnotized participant accepts the authority of the hypnotist over his or her own experience. When asked after the conclusion of such a session, some participants appear to be genuinely unable to recall the incident, while others say that they had known the hypnotist was wrong but at the time it had seemed easier just to go along with his instructions. (Richard Feynman describes this in his memoir Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! as his own experience under hypnosis.) The mechanism of this effect is however disputed: Some hypnotists would claim that this showed the difference between a deep and a shallow hypnotic trance, while skeptics would question the validity of this conclusion, citing that such effects can be duplicated in other circumstances where an agent holds authority, such as the Milgram experiment, and suggest that unreliability in results discredits a scientific theory of hypnosis.

Judgment

Some believe that hypnosis can affect the subject's judgment and therefore could potentially cause them harm. In the hand of a "professional" seeking to promote the subject's welfare, those of this opinion believe, hypnosis can produce profound effects and be a complement to treatment. Some of those who believe in hypnosis believe that in most cases one can resist hypnosis if one is aware of it. However, some of those who hold this belief also believe in brainwashing and/or mind control and believe that when hypnotism takes place in the context of these, resisting hypnosis is far more difficult. These beliefs are not generally based on scientific evidence, as there is no scientific consensus on whether mind control even exists, let alone whether it is more difficult to resist hypnotism in the context of this unverified theoretical construct.

Abreaction

Some psychologists and other mental health professionals are concerned that practitioners of hypnosis might evoke intense emotions in their clients that they are untrained to handle. These abreactions might occur when spontaneously or purposefully recalling traumatic events or, some believe, spontaneous mental breakdowns.

Hypnosis Applications

Hypnotherapy

Main article: Hypnotherapy

Hypnotherapy is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as "clinical work." Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his or her own business. The majority of certified hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the US, Diploma.Hyp in the UK) today earn a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting). Some of the so called 'incurable' diseases have shown to be treatable with the mind-body (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis). Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-called regression, have been viewed with skepticism. In many cases false memories can be invented due to a combination of suggestibility (hypnosis is effective in part because it lowers the critical facility), social expectation, and intentional or unintentional collaboration from the way the hypnotist leads the exploration. Thus many feel that these memories cannot be held to be reliable recollections, with some denouncing the procedure as harmful to the patient, and without any basis in fact.

The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one"[9], and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication"[10]. This is why Forensic Hypnosis is not widely used in many countries' legal systems.

Clinical Hypnosis

The American Society of Clinical Hypnosis is an organization that "promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications". Hypnosis is applied to a great range of both physical and psychological ailments, rather than being restricted to purely psychological phenomena. The society was founded by Milton Erickson, a doctor who attempted to put hypnosis on a firm therapeutic backing in the 1950s. Recently, efforts to reduce obesity with hypnosis (when used in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy, exercise, and a low-fat diet) have been effective in most cases[11].

Self-hypnosis

Main article: Autosuggestion

Self-hypnosis— (or autosuggestion) hypnosis in which a person hypnotizes himself without the assistance of another person to serve as the hypnotist—is a staple of hypnotherapy-related self-help programs. It is most often used to help the self-hypnotist stay on a diet, overcome smoking or some other addiction, or to generally boost the hypnotized person's self-esteem. It is rarely used for the more complex or controversial uses of hypnotism, which require the hypnotist to monitor the hypnotized person's reactions and responses and respond accordingly. Most people who practice self-hypnosis require a focus for their attention in order to become fully hypnotized; there are many computer programs on the market that can ostensibly help in this area, though buyer beware!

Some people use devices known as mind machines to help them go into self-hypnosis more readily. A mind machine consists of glasses with different colored flashing LEDs on the inside, and headphones. The LEDs stimulate the visual channel while the headphones stimulate the audio channel with similar or slightly different frequencies designed to produce a certain mental state. A common occurance is the use of binaural beats in the audio which is said to produce hypnosis more readily.

Dental Application

The use of hypnosis in dentistry has a long history. Dealing with hypnodontia -- the use of hypnosis in dentistry -- has attested to the increasing sophistication of hypnotic procedures to deal with the special problems of the dental patient. Besides smoothing out dental procedures by way of its generalized anti-anxiety effects, it can increase overall patient comfort, make the dental experience acceptable and bearable, decrease resistance to future intervention, and through posthypnotic suggestions, encourage more rapid recovery.

Obstetric Application (Painless Childbirth)

The practice of hypnotically assisted deliveries has a history of over a century. Falling into disfavor due to competition from chemical anesthesia, hypnosis has seen a revival in the last two decades. One important reason for this comeback is the realization that hypnosis may find usefulness not only in obstetric analgesia or anesthesia, but also in all phases of giving birth from pregnancy to postpartum recovery.

Forensic Application

Scientific knowledge of hypnosis applied to Legal problems is called forensic hypnosis.Courts prior to 1968 consistently excluded post-hypnotic testimony on the grounds that it was unreliable and apt to influence a jury unduly. Now hypnosis practice is growing stronger and still admissible in courtroom testimonies as long as the stringent criteria and guidelines are met. American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code specifies Crime done by hypnotic Suggestion & Witness evidence in court after Hypnotic suggestion are not valued. In the U.S., Oregon, Texas, Indiana, Nevada, and California states have separate hypnotic investigation acts. Nevada courts accepts hypnotically refreshed statements as evidence for judgment. Russia generally uses hypnosis in criminal investigations.

Mass Application

Influencing the crowds of common longings and yearnings by a demagogue is called mass hypnosis. Generally mass hypnosis is applied to religious sessions. The pious mob will easily respond to, monotonously repeating suggestive words. Many forms of music and dance can be used to create religious trance.

Stage Application

Stage hypnosis is where a hypnotist chooses volunteers from the audience, puts the volunteers into a trance using hypnosis, and then has them perform certain silly, funny, or supposedly "amazing" suggestions. This could be like having the volunteers believe they are: drunk; aliens speaking a strange alien language and having another volunteer translate the language; naked or seeing others naked; 6-year-old children; ballet dancers-and the list goes on. All suggestions are temporary and usually only last during the show. When performed correctly, stage hypnosis is basically having fun with the subconscious mind without any serious detrimental side effects. It's all performed for entertainment and with the welfare of the volunteers in mind. A stage hypnosis can be the most entertaining field because it involves "real" people from the audience responding in a variety of ways which usually makes no two shows the same.

Indirect Application

In addition to direct application of hypnosis (that is, treatment of conditions by means of hypnosis), there is also indirect application, wherein hypnosis is used to facilitate another procedure. Some people seem more able to display 'enhanced functioning', such as the suppression of pain, under hypnosis.

One of the major initial applications of hypnotism was the suppression of pain during medical procedures; this was supplanted (in the late 19th century) by the development of more reliable chemical anesthetics.

Some studies suggest that while hypnosis may possess these qualities, they are not exclusive to hypnosis, that it is often the drama and fantasizing that produces the behavior.

"And it's no coincidence that the most psychologically effective ad that the Bush campaign used in 2004 wasn't the wolf ad (that was #2) but one that had two specific NLP-based posthypnotic suggestions embedded into it, telling people that "in the quiet" and "when you're alone in the voting booth" that they "can't take the risk" of voting for Kerry. It looked like a simple check-list ad, but was saved for the last minute and played so heavily because it was so psychologically sophisticated and potent."[12]

Objective Signs of the Hypnotic State: Breuer's Absent Pupillary Reflex Sign

For those who discount trance state completely. This may be a objective sign... and is opposite the normal physiological response! When the subject/patient/client is in 'deep' hypnosis (based upon most scales)she/he is asked to stay in hypnosis and open their eyes. The pupils are usually dilated. When a penlight is shone into the eyes the pupils will usually stay dilated or poorly reactive (the normal non-hypnotic response being contraction). Some clinicians use this as a benchmark for cases being readied for hypno-anesthesia. What is meant by very 'deep hypnosis' is debatable as is the terminology used for that state (somnamulistic, Esdaile, Ultradepth, etc.). This is a brief test and will not take away from therapy. (Dr. William Breuer popularized this test in University lectures to his students after conducting a research project that involved professionals in multiple sites from three countries.) HISTORY: The early mention of this sign is in an 'archaic' and esoteric book, 'Hypnotism' by Carl Sextus, which stated that when people are asked to open their eyes while remaining in deep trance and then when a light is shone into their eyes, their pupils won't contract. Use any suggestions you wish to keep them in hypnosis, but at this point in trance do not use any suggestions relating to their eyes, visual focus, light or the pupils' dilation/contraction. http://www.angelfire.com/psy/sig

Professional associations and governmental authorities

Several types of organizations exist to further the professionalism and regulation of practicing hypnotists. For example, professional associations typically offer opportunities for collegial exchanges and professional development in general and/or specialized areas of hypnosis. They also may establish codes of conduct and standards for various certification programs. They may offer such certification programs directly or approve third-party programs. Organizations not affiliated with any professional association may offer their own certificates as well.

Governmental authorities, such as state licensing agencies, may establish minimum requirements for credentials that must be earned before one may practice hypnosis within their jurisdiction. Such credentials typically are called certificates or licenses. Some noteworthy examples of professional associations and governmental authorities that offer certification, licensure or statutes that regulate hypnosis follow.

Professional associations

• American Board of Medical Hypnosis
• American Council of Hypnotist Examiners
• American Hypnosis Board for Clinical Social Work
• American Psychological Association, Division 30 Psychological Hypnosis: "Brings together psychologists and other professionals interested in scientific and applied hypnosis."
• American Psychotherapy and Medical Hypnosis Association
• American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, founded by Milton Erickson in 1957: "Promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications."
• British Association of Therapeutical Hypnotists
• Council of Professional Hypnosis Organizations (International)
• National Board for Certified Clinical Hypnotherapists (USA)
• National Guild of Hypnotists (USA)
• Professional Board of Hypnotherapy (Canada)
• Society of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (USA)
• Institute of Clinical Hypnosis and Counselling.(India)http://www.hypnotradition.com

Governmental authorities

• California statute (Enter Chapter "820", Year "2002")
• Florida statute
• Indiana Hypnotist Committee

Historical sites

• The Hypnosis Museum of Historical Equipment & Methodology

Popular culture

The notion of hypnotism has elicited many presentations in popular culture. Intrinsically, the notion that people are succeptible to commands outside their conscious control can be an effective way of representing the notion of the fallible narrator.

Fictional treatments

The typical uses of hypnotism in fiction concentrate on one of the major abilities of hypnotism. As mentioned in the introduction, hypnotism can be used to:

• Recollect knowledge
• Take command of a subject
• Implant suggestions that the subject will obey while free of the hypnotic trance.

The recollection of knowledge has inspired use in detective fiction, as a tool for witnesses to examine details (such as license plate numbers) that could not be recalled while fully conscious. This appears in many television series, such as Law & Order or Homicide: Life on the Street. In addition, it has been expanded to the notion of remembering "past lives", that is, previous reincarnations of the subject, in such movies as "DEAD AGAIN."

In real-life cases, recollection of knowledge via hypnosis has been used in many cases, but its effectiveness is disputed. Proponents claim that recovered memories have aided in the solving of many crimes, often corroborating with physical evidence which would have been impossible to obtain otherwise. Skeptics suggest that such successes are a function of simple chance, pointing to cases where its use on victims of rape or attempted murder to help them jog their memory in identifying an accused has caused sentences to be doled out to the wrong person. This is because the hypnotist might make suggestions that are more likely to be remembered as "truth". Most experts recommend that the practice be used at most like a lie detector, to glean more information, and never as the smoking gun.

The notion of implanting suggestions is probably the most thoroughly explored; ranging from comedies such as The Naked Gun trilogy to dramas such as The Manchurian Candidate. These films usually center around the concept of brainwashing or mind control. Several cases have been recorded where the defense argued the accused had committed the murder under hypnosis, though there is little real evidence that such control is possible.

See also

• Chicken hypnotism
• Highway hypnosis
• Hypnotherapy
• Hypnagogia
• Hypnofetishism
• Hypnosis (novel)
• Lobster hypnotism
• Lucid dreaming
• Neuro-linguistic programming
• Sedative (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug)

References

Footnotes

1. ^ — Executive Committee of the American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis [1993, Fall]. Psychological Hypnosis: A Bulletin of Division 30, 2, p. 7; citation culled from hypnosis-research.org.
2. ^ — Dave Elman, Hypnotherapy, Westwood Publishing Company, 1984 ISBN 0930298047 (page 26).
3. ^ — Charcot, J. M.: Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System. London, New Sydenham Society, 1889.
4. ^ — Pavlov, I. P.: Experimental Psychology. New York, Philosophical Library, 1957.
5. ^ — Dittborn, J.M., and O'Connell, D.N.: Behavioral sleep, physiological sleep and hypnotizability. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15: 181, 1967)
6. ^  Weitzenhoffer, A.M.: Hypnotism - An Objective Study in Suggestability. New York, Wiley, 1953.
7. ^  Hilgard, E.R., and Hilgard, J.R.: Hypnosis in the Relief of Pain. Los Altos, CA, William Kaufman, 1975.
8. ^  Barber, T.X.: The concept of hypnosis. The American Journal of Psychology, 45: 115, 1958.

Books

• Hypnosis for the Seriously Curious, by Kenneth Bowers. NY: W. W. Norton (1993).
• Hypnosis and Suggestion in the Treatment of Pain: A Clinical Guide, by Joseph Barber. NY: Norton (1996).
• Mind control, Research by G. Wagstaff, Dept. of Psychology, University of Liverpool
• Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief by G. Wagstaff, (1981).
• The Highly Hypnotizable Person, Michael Heap, Richard J. Brown & David A. Oakley, (2004), Routledge
• Better and Better Every Day, Emile Coue, (1960).
• Uncommon Therapy, Jay Haley (about the psychotherapeutic intervention techniques of Milton Erickson)
• Advanced Self Hypnosis, Melvin Powers, Thorsons Publishers, 1973, ISBN-0-7225-0058-0
• Molly Moon's Incredible Book of Hypnotism, Georgia Byng
• Open to suggestion. The uses and abuses of hypnosis. Robert Temple, 1989, ISBN 1-85030-710-4
• Hypnosis With Friends and Lovers Freda Morris, 1979, ISBN 0062506005
• Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis William S. Kroger, M.D., 1977, ISBN 0-397-50377-6
• EBooks: The Power of Creative Visualization, Personal Transformation in 7 Weeks by Pradeep Aggarwal.

External links

Scientific Hypnosis Home Page [13]

• T Egner, G Jamieson, J Gruzelier, (2005) Hypnosis decouples cognitive control from conflict monitoring processes of the frontal lobe, NeuroImage, June 17. (Article in press [14], see [15] for news coverage).
• S. M. Kosslyn, W. L. Thompson, M. F. Costantini-Ferrando, N. M. Alpert, D. Spiegel, (2000) Hypnotic Visual Illusion Alters Color Processing in the Brain, Am J Psychiatry 157:1279-1284, August.
• Software for quick hypnosis and self-hypnosis based on both binaural beat effect and subliminal messages
• Hypnosis Works, an article from Discover magazine
• Hypnosis Studied With fMRI and PET brain scans (digest of several scientific articles)
• Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary, skeptical review of the veracity of hypnosis.
• Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com
• Hypnosis FAQ of alt.hypnosis, by C. Roy Hunter, M.S., FAPHP
• Hypnosis and self hypnosis FAQ, by Charles E. Henderson, Ph.D.

This article is based on the article "Hypnosis" from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License. Here you find the list of authors of this article. The article can only edited within Wikipedia. Edit this article in Wikipedia.

Hypnotherapy is the application of hypnosis as a form of treatment, usually for relieving pain or conditions related to one's state of mind. Practitioners believe that when a client enters, or believes he has entered, a state of trance, the patient is more receptive to suggestion and other therapy. The most common use of hypnotherapy is to remedy maladies like obesity, smoking, pain, ego, anxiety, stress, amnesia, phobias, and performance but many others can also be treated by hypnosis.

Contents 1 History 2 Relationship 3 Techniques 4 See also 5 External links

History

The roots of medicine by therapy lie in ancient societies even earlier than the Ancient Egyptians and Ancient Indians . Religious rituals were characterized by dancing, music, and masked peoples assuming new identities.

In the nineteenth century,Healers like Abbe Faria and practitioners like Franz Anton Mesmer, James Braid, James Esdale,John Elliotson, Ambroise-Auguste Liébault, Emile Coue, and Jean-Martin Charcot met resistance from society and the medical community for their novel ideas on using hypnosis to treat illness.

Sigmund Freud tried using hypnosis for psychological treatment in the late 1930s but he was not successful in treating any ailment with it and gave up on it in favor of his newly developed free association technique.

In the 1940s Andrew Salter introduced conditioned reflex therapy. He thus gave a rebirth to hypnotherapy.

Milton H. Erickson was one of the most successful modern hypnotherapists. He wrote many books, journals, and articles, on the subject and is a defining figure of modern hypnotherapy. As a professional doctor of medicine (MD) he treated many patients successfully using hypnotic techniques and did his very best to document his achievements.

Relationship

The Hypnotist-Subject relationship has been feared by some due to the practice of stage performers. In a book by Erica Fromm, it has been referred to as "archaic involvement", listing these responses in the "patient":

• Feeling like a child in relation to the hypnotist.
• Wanting to please the hypnotist.
• Feeling guilty at not doing what the hypnotist wants.
• Worrying the hypnotist will not like you.
• Wanting to bask in the "power and glory" of the hypnotist.
• Everything the hypnotist says and does deeply matters.

Hypnotherapy, however, usually takes place in a clinical setting, within the framework of an individual course of therapy.

Techniques

• Age Regression - by returning to an earlier ego-state the patient can regain qualities they once had, but have lost. Remembering an earlier, healthier, ego-state can increase the patients strength and confidence.
• Revivification - remembering past experiences can contribute to therapy. For example; the hypnotist may ask "have you ever been in trance?" and then find it easier to revive the previous experience than attempt inducing a new state.
• Guided Imagery - a method by which the subject is given a new relaxing and beneficial experience.
• Confusion - a method developed by Milton Erickson in which the subject becomes receptive to ideas because confused.
• Repetition - the more an idea is repeated the more likely it is to be accepted and acted upon by the patient.
• Direct Suggestion - suggesting directly. "You feel safe and secure".
• Indirect Suggestion - using "interspersal" technique and other means to cause effect.
• Mental State - people are more receptive while relaxed, sleeping, or in a trance.
• Hypnoanalysis - the client recalls moments from his past, confronting them and releasing associated emotions, similar to psychoanalysis.
• Post Hypnotic Suggestion - a suggestion that will be carried out after the trance has ended. "When you re-awaken you will feel refreshed."
• Binds or Double binds - tension on a bind causes trance. This is like "the centipede who when asked which comes first, the left foot or the right, lost his concentration, stumbled, then rolled into the ditch". Binds are very common in hypnosis and it is essential to know the capacity of the subject and to ensure they will concentrate on the leg that will carry them through their journey. The duty of the hypnotist is to concentrate the subject on their desired goal.
• Visualization - being told to imagine or visualize a desired outcome seems to make it more likely to actually occur.

See also

• Hypnosis
• Psychotherapy
• Suggestibility

External links

• The Art of Hypnosis Study Group
• Hypnotherapy vs Hypnosis FAQ
• Quote of effectiviness Study

This article is based on the article "Hypnotherapy" from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License. Here you find the list of authors of this article. The article can only edited within Wikipedia. Edit this article in Wikipedia.