Apologetics

Apologetics is the field of study concerned with the systematic defense of a position. Someone who engages in apologetics is called an apologist or an "apologete". The term comes from the Greek word apologia (απολογια), meaning defense of a position against an attack. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua in 1864, he was playing upon both connotations. Early uses of the term include Plato's Apology (the defense speech of Socrates from his trial) and some works of early Christian apologists, such as St. Justin Martyr's two Apologies addressed to the emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Colloquial usage

Today the term "apologist" is colloquially applied to groups and individuals systematically promoting causes, justifying orthodoxies or denying certain events, even of crimes. Apologists are often characterized as being deceptive, or "whitewashing" their cause, primarily through omission of negative facts (selective perception) and exaggeration of positive ones, techniques of classical rhetoric. When used in this context, the term often has a pejorative meaning. The neutralized substitution of "spokesperson" for "apologist" in conversation conveys much the same sense of "partisan presenter with a weighted agenda," with less rhetorical freight.

Technical usages

The term apologetics etymologically derives from the Classical Greek word "apologia". In Classical Greek legal system two key technical terms were employed: the prosecution delivered the "kategoria", and the defendant replied with an "apologia". To deliver an "apologia" then meant making a formal speech to reply and rebut the charges. Plato's book The Apology was an account of Socrates' defence in court against his accusers.

This Classical Greek term appears in the Koine (i.e. common) Greek of the New Testament. The Apostle Paul employs the term "apologia" in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defence" (Acts 26:2). A cognate term appears in Paul's letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" (1:7 & 17), and in 1 Peter 3:15 believers must be ready to give an "answer" for their faith.

The legal nuance of apologetics was reframed in a more specific sense to refer to the study of the defence of a doctrine or belief. In this context it most commonly refers to philosophical reconciliation. Religious apologetics is the effort to show that the preferred faith is not irrational, that believing in it is not against human reason, and that in fact the religion contains values and promotes ways of life more in accord with human nature than other faiths or beliefs.

In the English language, the word apology is derived from the Greek word "apologia", but its use has changed; its primary sense now refers to a defensive plea for forgiveness for an action that is open to blame. It is occasionally used to refer to a speech or writing that defends the author's position.

There is an argument to suggest that religious apologists such as Richard Swinburne should not be described as philosophers, since by definition a philosopher has an open mind and allows a line of reasoning to lead to a conclusion, rather than beginning with a conclusion and attempting to find reasons for it. While it can be argued that many secular philosophers do this themselves, the case of religious apologetics often seems readily apparent.

Intellectual and social function of religious apologetics

Apologetics serves an intellectual function within religious communities by providing arguments that support the doctrinal and ethical tenets of the religion. These arguments strengthen the believer's faith and support the propagation of the religion by offering arguments intended to persuade the uncommitted.

Skeptics engaged in debate with apologists tend to expect apologetics to consist of powerful arguments intended to persuade skeptics, and are sometimes surprised by the failure of these arguments to even approach this goal. Occasionally, it's because the apologist just isn't any good. Most often, though, it's because the arguments only had the purpose of giving current believers license to continue believing. Since skeptics are not the intended target at all, these arguments aim for a much lower burden, not trying to do more than make the religious belief plausible or cast doubt on skeptical arguments.

This faith-affirming aspect is often downplayed or even overlooked, but it can be very important, particularly in psychological and sociological terms. For some, the mere fact that even superficially reasonable arguments exist in support of their beliefs suffices to prevent them from making any effort at all to question whether they should continue to believe. For others, the ready-made arguments allow knee-jerk defense without the inconvenience of having to really consider the issues deeply on their own, or the risk that they might be forced to change their minds. And for the true believer, any excuse at all will do, no matter how far-fetched. This is consistent with the observations of sociologists of religion, such as Peter Berger and Douglas Cowan, who found that boundary maintenance of belief occurs when one religious tradition encounters another. In this view, engaging in apologetics is less about converting others than boosting their own beleaguered faith.

Varieties of Christian apologetics

There are a variety of Christian apologetic styles and schools of thought. In the Thomistic or Classical apologetics tradition philosophical arguments for God's existence are emphasized before turning to the specific case for Christian revelation claims. In the Evidentialist tradition empirical arguments about the life, miracles, death and resurrection of Christ are presented as probabilistic proofs. The Presuppositional tradition argues that belief in God must be presupposed, and from that vantage point non-theistic assumptions are proven to be fallacious.

Early Church

In the first centuries AD a number of Christian writers undertook the task of proving that Christianity was beneficial for the Roman Empire and for humanity as a whole. Also they wrote to defend their faith against attacks made by other people or to properly explain their faith. Aristides and Quadratus of Athens, writing in the early second century, were two of the first Christians to write apologetics treatises. Other second-century apologetics writings of note included the First Apology and Second Apology of Justin Martyr and the Epistle to Diognetus , a response to the accusation that Christians were a danger to Rome.

About a century after Constantine's conversion to Christianity, the Roman Empire began falling to invaders from northern Europe. Some Christian writers sought to explain the decline of Roman culture and power by systematically downplaying the achievements of classical antiquity while emphasizing the persecution of Christians and the positive role of Christianity in society. Paulus Orosius wrote the first book advancing this perspective (History Against the Pagans), though the far more learned and influential work of this type was The City of God by Augustine of Hippo (426).

Several of the early Christian apologists developed arguments from fulfilled prophecy and gospel miracles as proofs of Christ's divinity. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Demonstration of the Gospel attempted to prove the truth of Christianity by fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament, and by rebutting arguments that the apostles had made up the story of Christ's resurrection.

Medieval to post-Reformation era

In Medieval Europe Anselm of Canterbury composed the Monologion and Proslogion in which he developed the ontological argument for God's existence. He believed that faith was necessary as a precursor to philosophical argument and expressed his position as "I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand: for this I also believe, that unless I believe I will not understand."

Theodore Abu Qurra, the ninth century bishop of Harran, composed On God and The True Religion. Abu Qurra represents a group of Christian Arabic apologists who argued their case under early Islamic rule.

A highly influential Catholic apologist was Thomas Aquinas who presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologiae. His approach, which adapted Aristotlean thought, is known as Thomism, and has dominated both Roman Catholic and Protestant approaches.

The first Protestant textbook of apologetics was written by the Dutch legal scholar Hugo Grotius, On The Truth of the Christian Religion. This work, which was released in 1632 and translated into many languages, remained in print in English until the late nineteenth century, defended the historicity of the gospels, and also addressed arguments to Jews and Muslims.

Modern era

Since the seventeenth century the controversies over Deism, the Enlightenment, humanism, and theories of Feuerbach, Marx, Freud and Darwin, have each in turn spurred both Catholic and Protestant apologists to reply. Changing modes in apologetics, whether or not they are currently fashionable, are important markers in the history of ideas. Among the notable apologists of the early modern era are Blaise Pascal, Joseph Butler, William Paley, Søren Kierkegaard, and John Henry Newman.

The Catholic G. K. Chesterton, the Anglican C. S. Lewis, the Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery, and the Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the 20th century. Among the most widely read Christian apologists writing in English have been Josh McDowell and Lee Strobel. Another modern apologist is Ravi Zacharias, author of The Lotus and the Cross: Jesus Talks with Buddha which argues for Christian truth over world religions and other modern movements. Other prominent Christian apologists include:

In India the emergence of modern rationalist and atheist beliefs has prompted a counter move from indigenous Christian apologists. The most notable among them is Johnson C. Philip, who authored more than 50 books and 2500 articles in defense of the Christian faith. He also founded the first seminary in the world that offers masters and doctoral programs in Christian apologetics through distance education. Known as Trinity School of Apologetics and Theology, it has trained a number of key apologists worldwide.

Apologetics in world religions

As the world's religions have encountered one another, apologists from within their respective faiths have emerged.

One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is The Questions of King Milinda, which deals with ethical and intellectual problems. In the British colonial era, Buddhists in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) wrote tracts that challenged and rejected Christianity. In the mid-nineteenth century, encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan prompted the formation of a Buddhist Propagation Society. In recent times A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a text designed to refute the arguments of Christian evangelists. At a sophisticated academic level, Gunapala Dharmasiri has challenged the Christian concept of God from a Theravadan Buddhist perspective.

Apologists for Islam have defended the Qur'an using rationalist and empiricist arguments, and using cosmological arguments to prove God's existence. Muslim apologists have also challenged both Jewish and Christian beliefs. The late South African, Ahmed Deedat, was a prolific popular writer who debated Christian evangelists by arguing over discrepancies in the Bible, and claiming the Gospel of Barnabas is the only authentic record of Jesus' life.

Hindu apologetics designed to counter Christian missions developed in the British colonial era. Richard Fox Young has collated examples of these early apologetic tracts.

In a famous speech in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket was an apologist for Native American religion, as opposed to Christianity.

See also

• Christian apologetics
• Arguments for the existence of God
• Arguments against the existence of God
• Christian countercult movement
• Fideism
• Polemic
• Presuppositional apologetics
• Problem of evil
• Theodicy
• Mormon Apologetics
• A Mathematician's Apology by G. H. Hardy

External links

• Apologetics Wiki
• Apollos.ws The largest compilation of apologetics audio/video files.
• Lumen Gentleman Apologetics
• Catholic Answers The largest Catholic Apologetics organization in North America.
• Christian Apologetics Questions and Answers - Answers in Genesis An apologetics organization defending a young-earth form of creationism.
• Christian Truth and its Defense Gives the gospel of Christianity and answers common questions about God, truth, reason, and faith.
• Apologetics Index A huge database of apologetics and countercult research resources.
• Apologetics Courses A large number of downloadable apologetics courses.
• Reformation Ministries International The writings of theologian Vincent Cheung.
• bethinking.org A colourful site with a large amount of audio and text from many different Christian apologists available for free download. Material is sorted into Introductory, Intermediate and Advanced for ease of use.
• Biblical Archeology An encyclopedic site on Archeology for apologetics.
• Catholic Apologetics of America A large Catholic blog with several articles and links to help defend and explain the Catholic faith.
• A Buddhist Critique of Christianity by A. L. de Silva.
• Eternal Ministries, a Christian apologetics and theology ministry
• Tekton Apologetics Ministries, a Christian website collecting arguments primarily about biblical apologetics.
• A different view of the purpose of Christian apologetics
• Catholic Encyclopedia: Apologetics.
• An apologetics organization defending the biblical form of creationism (Answers in Genesis).
• Reasons to Believe An apologetics organization defending an old-earth form of creationism.
• Basic Apologetics Curriculum
• Apologetic Ebooks Several illustrated ebooks on Christian Apologetics.
• Ravi Zacharias, modern apologist
• Apologetics Press Vast amount of apologetics resources.
• Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry
• Islamic Apologetics site
• Academy for Christian Thought, A research & educational ministry for effective apologetic witness in the marketplace of ideas

Bibliography

1. Reference Works in Christian Apologetics

Bush, L. Russ. 1983. Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics AD. 100-1800.Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Geisler, Norman L. 1999. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Baker Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan. [1]

2. Popular Christian Apologists

Geisler, Norman L., and Ronald M. Brooks. 1990. When Skeptics Ask: A Handbook of Christian Evidences. Victor Books, Wheaton, Illinois.

Lewis, C. S. 1955. Mere Christianity. Fontana, Glasgow.

Lewis, C. S. 1960 (1947). Miracles: A Preliminary Study. Fontana, Glasgow.

Lewis, C. S. 1957 (1940). The Problem of Pain. Fontana, Glasgow.

Little, Paul E. 1968. Know Why You Believe. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove.

McDowell, Josh. 1979. Evidence That Demands A Verdict. Revised Edition. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

McDowell, Josh. 1981. The Resurrection Factor. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

McDowell, Josh., and Don Stewart. 1980. Answers to Tough Questions Skeptics Ask About the Christian Faith. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

Montgomery, John Warwick. 2002. History, Law and Christianity. Canadian Institute for Law, Theology & Public Policy, Edmonton, Alberta. [2]

Montgomery, John Warwick. 2003. Tractatus Logico-Theologicus. Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft/Culture and Science Publishers. [3]

Schaeffer, Francis A. 1982. The Complete Works of Francis Schaeffer. 5 Volumes. Crossway Books, Westchester, Illinois.

Strobel, Lee. 1998. The Case for Christ: A Journalist's Personal Investigation of the Evidence for Jesus. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

3. Introductory Textbooks on Christian Apologetics

Beckwith, Francis J., J. P. Moreland & William Lane Craig (eds). 2004. To Everyone An Answer: A Case for the Christian Worldview: essays in Honor of Norman L. Geisler. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove. [4]

Craig, William Lane. 1994. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics. Crossway Books, Wheaton, Illinois.

Dembski, William A., and Jay Wesley Richards (eds). 2001. Unapologetic Apologetics: Meeting the Challenges of Theological Studies. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Frame, John M. 1994. Apologetics to the Glory of God: An Introduction. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Phillipsburg, New Jersey. [5]

Kreeft, Peter., and Ronald K. Tacelli.1994. Handbook of Christian Apologetics. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

McGrath, Alister. 1992. Bridge-Building: Effective Christian Apologetics. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK.

Montgomery, John Warwick (ed). 1991. Evidence for Faith: Deciding the God Question. Probe, Dallas. [6]

Moreland, J. P. 1987. Scaling the Secular City: A Defense of Christianity. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

4. Historical Surveys of Christian Apologetics

Barnard, L. W. 1978. "Early Christian Art as Apologetic." Journal of Religious History 10 (1): 20-31.

Chadwick, Henry. 1965. "Justin Martyr's Defence of Christianity." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library 47: 275-297.

Clark, M. L. 1974. Paley: Evidences for the Man. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario.

Craig, William Lane.1985. The Historical Argument for the Resurrection of Jesus During The Deist Controversy. Texts & Studies in Religion Volume 23. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York & Queenston, Ontario.

Dahan, Gilbert. 1998. The Christian Polemic against the Jews in the Middle Ages. Translated by Jody Gladding. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana.

Dulles, Avery. 1999. A History of Apologetics. Wipf & Stock, Eugene, Oregon. [7]

Edwards, Mark., Martin Goodman & Simon Price (eds). 1999. Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians. Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York. [8]

Phillips, Walter. 1977. "The Defence of Christian Belief in Australia 1875-1914: The Responses to Evolution and Higher Criticism." Journal of Religious History, 9 (4):402-423.

Reid, J. K. S. 1970. Christian Apologetics. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Rurak, James. 1980. "Butler's Analogy: A Still Interesting Synthesis of Reason and Revelation." Anglican Theological Review 52: 365-381.

Samir, S. Khalil (ed). 1994. Christian Arabic Apologetics During the Abbasid Period. Studies in the History of Religions. Brill Academic, Leiden, The Netherlands. [9]

Sell, Alan P. F. 1987. Defending and Declaring the Faith: Some Scottish Examples 1860-1920. Paternoster Press, Exeter, UK/Helmers & Howard, Colorado Springs.

Sims, John A. 1995. Missionaries to the Skeptics: Christian Apologists for the Twentieth Century. C. S. Lewis, E. J. Carnell and Reinhold Niebuhr. Mercer University Press, Macon, Georgia.

5. Discussion of Methodology in Christian Apologetics

Bahnsen, Greg. 1998. Van Til's Apologetic: Readings and Analysis. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Phillipsburg, New Jersey.

Boa, Kenneth D., and Robert M. Bowman. 2001. Faith Has Its Reasons: An Integrative Approach to Defending Christianity. NAV Press, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Clark, David K. 1993. Dialogical Apologetics: A Person-Centered Approach to Christian Defense. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Cowan, Steven B. (ed). 2000. Five Views on Apologetics. Counterpoint Series. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Geehan, E. R. (ed). 1971. Jerusalem and Athens: Critical Discussions on the Philosophy and Apologetics of Cornelius Van Til. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Nutley, New Jersey.

Griffiths, Paul J. 1991. An Apology for Apologetics: A Study in the Logic of Interreligious Dialogue. Faith Meets Faith Series. Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York.

Hanna, Mark M. 1981. Crucial Questions in Apologetics. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Johnson, John. 2003. "A Case for 'Reformed Evidentialism'." Churchman 117 (1): 7-32.

Lewis, Gordon R. 1976. Testing Christianity's Truth Claims. Moody Press, Chicago. [10]

Mayers, Ronald B. 1984. Both/And: A Balanced Apologetic. Moody Press, Chicago.

Montgomery, John Warwick. 1978. Faith Founded on Fact: Essays in Evidentialist Apologetics. Thomas Nelson, Nashville & New York.

Morris, Thomas V. 1987. Francis Schaeffer's Apologetics: A Critique. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Netland, Harold. 1988. "Toward Contextualized Apologetics." Missiology: An International Review 16 (3): 289-303.

Ramm, Bernard. 1962. Varieties of Christian Apologetics: An Introduction to the Christian Philosophy of Religion. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Sproul, R. C., John Gerstner, and Arthur Lindsley. 1984. Classical Apologetics: A Rational Defense of the Christian Faith and a Critique of Presuppositional Apologetics. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

6. Christian Apologetics and Post-Modernity

Carson, D. A. 1996. The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Johnson, Philip. 1998. "Apologetics and Myths: Signs of Salvation in Postmodernity." Lutheran Theological Journal 32 (2): 62-72.

Middleton, J. Richard., and Brian J. Walsh. 1995. Truth Is Stranger Than It Used To Be: Biblical Faith in a Postmodern Age. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Phillips, Timothy R., and Dennis L. Okholm (eds). 1995. Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Sire, James W. 1994. Why Should Anyone Believe Anything At All? InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Stackhouse, John G. 2002. Humble Apologetics: Defending the Faith Today. Oxford University Press, New York. [11]

Wilkinson, David. 2002. "The Art of Apologetics in the Twenty-First Century." Anvil 19 (1): 5-17.

7. Historical Apologetics for Christ's Resurrection

Craig, William Lane. 1989. Assessing the New Testament Evidence for the Historicity of the Resurrection of Jesus. Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity, Volume 16. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York/Queenston, Ontario/Lampeter, Wales.

Habermas, Gary R. 1980. The Resurrection of Jesus: An Apologetic. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Miethe, Terry L. (ed).1987. Did Jesus Rise From The Dead?: The Resurrection Debate. (Gary Habermas and Antony Flew). Harper & Row, San Francisco.

8. Legal Apologetics

Clifford, Ross. 1996. Leading Lawyers' Case for the Resurrection. Canadian Institute for Law, Theology & Public Policy, Edmonton, Alberta.

Clifford, Ross. 2004. John Warwick Montgomery's Legal Apologetic: An Apologetic For All Seasons. Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft/Culture and Science Publishers, Bonn.

Ewen, Pamela Binnings. 1999. Faith on Trial: An Attorney Analyzes the Evidence for the Death and Resurrection of Jesus. Broadman & Holman, Nashville, Tennessee.

Johnson, Philip. 2002. "Juridical Apologists 1600-2000 AD: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey." Global Journal of Classical Theology3/1. [12]

Parton, Craig A. 2003. The Defense Never Rests: A Lawyer's Quest for the Gospel. Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis, Missouri.

9. Philosophical Apologetics

Beckwith, Francis J. 1989. David Hume's Argument Against Miracles: A Critical Analysis. University Press of America. Lanham, Maryland & London.

Brown, Colin. 1984. Miracles and the Critical Mind. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan/Paternoster Press, Exeter, UK.

Clark, Kelly James. 1990. Return To Reason: A Critique of Enlightenment Evidentialism and a Defense of Reason and Belief in God. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Craig, William Lane. 1979. The Kalām Cosmological Argument. MacMillan, London.

Craig, William Lane., and Quentin Smith. 1993. Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Geivitt, R. Douglas., and Gary R. Habermas (eds). 19